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GIT-REBASE(1) Git Manual GIT-REBASE(1)
NAME
git-rebase - Forward-port local commits to the updated upstream head
SYNOPSIS
git rebase [-i | --interactive] [options] [--exec <cmd>] [--onto <newbase>]
[<upstream>] [<branch>]
git rebase [-i | --interactive] [options] [--exec <cmd>] [--onto <newbase>]
--root [<branch>]
git rebase --continue | --skip | --abort | --edit-todo
DESCRIPTION
If <branch> is specified, git rebase will perform an automatic git checkout <branch> before doing
anything else. Otherwise it remains on the current branch.
If <upstream> is not specified, the upstream configured in branch.<name>.remote and
branch.<name>.merge options will be used; see git-config(1) for details. If you are currently not on
any branch or if the current branch does not have a configured upstream, the rebase will abort.
All changes made by commits in the current branch but that are not in <upstream> are saved to a
temporary area. This is the same set of commits that would be shown by git log <upstream>..HEAD (or
git log HEAD, if --root is specified).
The current branch is reset to <upstream>, or <newbase> if the --onto option was supplied. This has
the exact same effect as git reset --hard <upstream> (or <newbase>). ORIG_HEAD is set to point at the
tip of the branch before the reset.
The commits that were previously saved into the temporary area are then reapplied to the current
branch, one by one, in order. Note that any commits in HEAD which introduce the same textual changes
as a commit in HEAD..<upstream> are omitted (i.e., a patch already accepted upstream with a different
commit message or timestamp will be skipped).
It is possible that a merge failure will prevent this process from being completely automatic. You
will have to resolve any such merge failure and run git rebase --continue. Another option is to
bypass the commit that caused the merge failure with git rebase --skip. To check out the original
<branch> and remove the .git/rebase-apply working files, use the command git rebase --abort instead.
Assume the following history exists and the current branch is "topic":
A---B---C topic
/
D---E---F---G master
From this point, the result of either of the following commands:
git rebase master
git rebase master topic
would be:
A'--B'--C' topic
/
D---E---F---G master
NOTE: The latter form is just a short-hand of git checkout topic followed by git rebase master. When
rebase exits topic will remain the checked-out branch.
If the upstream branch already contains a change you have made (e.g., because you mailed a patch
which was applied upstream), then that commit will be skipped. For example, running `git rebase
master` on the following history (in which A' and A introduce the same set of changes, but have
different committer information):
A---B---C topic
/
D---E---A'---F master
will result in:
B'---C' topic
/
D---E---A'---F master
Here is how you would transplant a topic branch based on one branch to another, to pretend that you
forked the topic branch from the latter branch, using rebase --onto.
First let's assume your topic is based on branch next. For example, a feature developed in topic
depends on some functionality which is found in next.
o---o---o---o---o master
\
o---o---o---o---o next
\
o---o---o topic
We want to make topic forked from branch master; for example, because the functionality on which
topic depends was merged into the more stable master branch. We want our tree to look like this:
o---o---o---o---o master
| \
| o'--o'--o' topic
\
o---o---o---o---o next
We can get this using the following command:
git rebase --onto master next topic
Another example of --onto option is to rebase part of a branch. If we have the following situation:
H---I---J topicB
/
E---F---G topicA
/
A---B---C---D master
then the command
git rebase --onto master topicA topicB
would result in:
H'--I'--J' topicB
/
| E---F---G topicA
|/
A---B---C---D master
This is useful when topicB does not depend on topicA.
A range of commits could also be removed with rebase. If we have the following situation:
E---F---G---H---I---J topicA
then the command
git rebase --onto topicA~5 topicA~3 topicA
would result in the removal of commits F and G:
E---H'---I'---J' topicA
This is useful if F and G were flawed in some way, or should not be part of topicA. Note that the
argument to --onto and the <upstream> parameter can be any valid commit-ish.
In case of conflict, git rebase will stop at the first problematic commit and leave conflict markers
in the tree. You can use git diff to locate the markers (<<<<<<) and make edits to resolve the
conflict. For each file you edit, you need to tell Git that the conflict has been resolved, typically
this would be done with
git add <filename>
After resolving the conflict manually and updating the index with the desired resolution, you can
continue the rebasing process with
git rebase --continue
Alternatively, you can undo the git rebase with
git rebase --abort
CONFIGURATION
rebase.stat
Whether to show a diffstat of what changed upstream since the last rebase. False by default.
rebase.autosquash
If set to true enable --autosquash option by default.
OPTIONS
--onto <newbase>
Starting point at which to create the new commits. If the --onto option is not specified, the
starting point is <upstream>. May be any valid commit, and not just an existing branch name.
As a special case, you may use "A...B" as a shortcut for the merge base of A and B if there is
exactly one merge base. You can leave out at most one of A and B, in which case it defaults to
HEAD.
<upstream>
Upstream branch to compare against. May be any valid commit, not just an existing branch name.
Defaults to the configured upstream for the current branch.
<branch>
Working branch; defaults to HEAD.
--continue
Restart the rebasing process after having resolved a merge conflict.
--abort
Abort the rebase operation and reset HEAD to the original branch. If <branch> was provided when
the rebase operation was started, then HEAD will be reset to <branch>. Otherwise HEAD will be
reset to where it was when the rebase operation was started.
--keep-empty
Keep the commits that do not change anything from its parents in the result.
--skip
Restart the rebasing process by skipping the current patch.
--edit-todo
Edit the todo list during an interactive rebase.
-m, --merge
Use merging strategies to rebase. When the recursive (default) merge strategy is used, this
allows rebase to be aware of renames on the upstream side.
Note that a rebase merge works by replaying each commit from the working branch on top of the
<upstream> branch. Because of this, when a merge conflict happens, the side reported as ours is
the so-far rebased series, starting with <upstream>, and theirs is the working branch. In other
words, the sides are swapped.
-s <strategy>, --strategy=<strategy>
Use the given merge strategy. If there is no -s option git merge-recursive is used instead. This
implies --merge.
Because git rebase replays each commit from the working branch on top of the <upstream> branch
using the given strategy, using the ours strategy simply discards all patches from the <branch>,
which makes little sense.
-X <strategy-option>, --strategy-option=<strategy-option>
Pass the <strategy-option> through to the merge strategy. This implies --merge and, if no
strategy has been specified, -s recursive. Note the reversal of ours and theirs as noted above
for the -m option.
-q, --quiet
Be quiet. Implies --no-stat.
-v, --verbose
Be verbose. Implies --stat.
--stat
Show a diffstat of what changed upstream since the last rebase. The diffstat is also controlled
by the configuration option rebase.stat.
-n, --no-stat
Do not show a diffstat as part of the rebase process.
--no-verify
This option bypasses the pre-rebase hook. See also githooks(5).
--verify
Allows the pre-rebase hook to run, which is the default. This option can be used to override
--no-verify. See also githooks(5).
-C<n>
Ensure at least <n> lines of surrounding context match before and after each change. When fewer
lines of surrounding context exist they all must match. By default no context is ever ignored.
-f, --force-rebase
Force the rebase even if the current branch is a descendant of the commit you are rebasing onto.
Normally non-interactive rebase will exit with the message "Current branch is up to date" in such
a situation. Incompatible with the --interactive option.
You may find this (or --no-ff with an interactive rebase) helpful after reverting a topic branch
merge, as this option recreates the topic branch with fresh commits so it can be remerged
successfully without needing to "revert the reversion" (see the revert-a-faulty-merge How-To[1]
for details).
--ignore-whitespace, --whitespace=<option>
These flag are passed to the git apply program (see git-apply(1)) that applies the patch.
Incompatible with the --interactive option.
--committer-date-is-author-date, --ignore-date
These flags are passed to git am to easily change the dates of the rebased commits (see git-am(1)). gitam(1)).
am(1)). Incompatible with the --interactive option.
-i, --interactive
Make a list of the commits which are about to be rebased. Let the user edit that list before
rebasing. This mode can also be used to split commits (see SPLITTING COMMITS below).
-p, --preserve-merges
Instead of ignoring merges, try to recreate them.
This uses the --interactive machinery internally, but combining it with the --interactive option
explicitly is generally not a good idea unless you know what you are doing (see BUGS below).
-x <cmd>, --exec <cmd>
Append "exec <cmd>" after each line creating a commit in the final history. <cmd> will be
interpreted as one or more shell commands.
This option can only be used with the --interactive option (see INTERACTIVE MODE below).
You may execute several commands by either using one instance of --exec with several commands:
git rebase -i --exec "cmd1 && cmd2 && ..."
or by giving more than one --exec:
git rebase -i --exec "cmd1" --exec "cmd2" --exec ...
If --autosquash is used, "exec" lines will not be appended for the intermediate commits, and will
only appear at the end of each squash/fixup series.
--root
Rebase all commits reachable from <branch>, instead of limiting them with an <upstream>. This
allows you to rebase the root commit(s) on a branch. When used with --onto, it will skip changes
already contained in <newbase> (instead of <upstream>) whereas without --onto it will operate on
every change. When used together with both --onto and --preserve-merges, all root commits will be
rewritten to have <newbase> as parent instead.
--autosquash, --no-autosquash
When the commit log message begins with "squash! ..." (or "fixup! ..."), and there is a commit
whose title begins with the same ..., automatically modify the todo list of rebase -i so that the
commit marked for squashing comes right after the commit to be modified, and change the action of
the moved commit from pick to squash (or fixup).
This option is only valid when the --interactive option is used.
If the --autosquash option is enabled by default using the configuration variable
rebase.autosquash, this option can be used to override and disable this setting.
--no-ff
With --interactive, cherry-pick all rebased commits instead of fast-forwarding over the unchanged
ones. This ensures that the entire history of the rebased branch is composed of new commits.
Without --interactive, this is a synonym for --force-rebase.
You may find this helpful after reverting a topic branch merge, as this option recreates the
topic branch with fresh commits so it can be remerged successfully without needing to "revert the
reversion" (see the revert-a-faulty-merge How-To[1] for details).
MERGE STRATEGIES
The merge mechanism (git-merge and git-pull commands) allows the backend merge strategies to be
chosen with -s option. Some strategies can also take their own options, which can be passed by giving
-X<option> arguments to git-merge and/or git-pull.
resolve
This can only resolve two heads (i.e. the current branch and another branch you pulled from)
using a 3-way merge algorithm. It tries to carefully detect criss-cross merge ambiguities and is
considered generally safe and fast.
recursive
This can only resolve two heads using a 3-way merge algorithm. When there is more than one common
ancestor that can be used for 3-way merge, it creates a merged tree of the common ancestors and
uses that as the reference tree for the 3-way merge. This has been reported to result in fewer
merge conflicts without causing mis-merges by tests done on actual merge commits taken from Linux
2.6 kernel development history. Additionally this can detect and handle merges involving renames.
This is the default merge strategy when pulling or merging one branch.
The recursive strategy can take the following options:
ours
This option forces conflicting hunks to be auto-resolved cleanly by favoring our version.
Changes from the other tree that do not conflict with our side are reflected to the merge
result. For a binary file, the entire contents are taken from our side.
This should not be confused with the ours merge strategy, which does not even look at what
the other tree contains at all. It discards everything the other tree did, declaring our
history contains all that happened in it.
theirs
This is the opposite of ours.
patience
With this option, merge-recursive spends a little extra time to avoid mismerges that
sometimes occur due to unimportant matching lines (e.g., braces from distinct functions). Use
this when the branches to be merged have diverged wildly. See also git-diff(1) --patience.
diff-algorithm=[patience|minimal|histogram|myers]
Tells merge-recursive to use a different diff algorithm, which can help avoid mismerges that
occur due to unimportant matching lines (such as braces from distinct functions). See also
git-diff(1) --diff-algorithm.
ignore-space-change, ignore-all-space, ignore-space-at-eol
Treats lines with the indicated type of whitespace change as unchanged for the sake of a
three-way merge. Whitespace changes mixed with other changes to a line are not ignored. See
also git-diff(1) -b, -w, and --ignore-space-at-eol.
• If their version only introduces whitespace changes to a line, our version is used;
• If our version introduces whitespace changes but their version includes a substantial
change, their version is used;
• Otherwise, the merge proceeds in the usual way.
renormalize
This runs a virtual check-out and check-in of all three stages of a file when resolving a
three-way merge. This option is meant to be used when merging branches with different clean
filters or end-of-line normalization rules. See "Merging branches with differing
checkin/checkout attributes" in gitattributes(5) for details.
no-renormalize
Disables the renormalize option. This overrides the merge.renormalize configuration variable.
rename-threshold=<n>
Controls the similarity threshold used for rename detection. See also git-diff(1) -M.
subtree[=<path>]
This option is a more advanced form of subtree strategy, where the strategy makes a guess on
how two trees must be shifted to match with each other when merging. Instead, the specified
path is prefixed (or stripped from the beginning) to make the shape of two trees to match.
octopus
This resolves cases with more than two heads, but refuses to do a complex merge that needs manual
resolution. It is primarily meant to be used for bundling topic branch heads together. This is
the default merge strategy when pulling or merging more than one branch.
ours
This resolves any number of heads, but the resulting tree of the merge is always that of the
current branch head, effectively ignoring all changes from all other branches. It is meant to be
used to supersede old development history of side branches. Note that this is different from the
-Xours option to the recursive merge strategy.
subtree
This is a modified recursive strategy. When merging trees A and B, if B corresponds to a subtree
of A, B is first adjusted to match the tree structure of A, instead of reading the trees at the
same level. This adjustment is also done to the common ancestor tree.
NOTES
You should understand the implications of using git rebase on a repository that you share. See also
RECOVERING FROM UPSTREAM REBASE below.
When the git-rebase command is run, it will first execute a "pre-rebase" hook if one exists. You can
use this hook to do sanity checks and reject the rebase if it isn't appropriate. Please see the
template pre-rebase hook script for an example.
Upon completion, <branch> will be the current branch.
INTERACTIVE MODE
Rebasing interactively means that you have a chance to edit the commits which are rebased. You can
reorder the commits, and you can remove them (weeding out bad or otherwise unwanted patches).
The interactive mode is meant for this type of workflow:
1. have a wonderful idea
2. hack on the code
3. prepare a series for submission
4. submit
where point 2. consists of several instances of
a) regular use
1. finish something worthy of a commit
2. commit
b) independent fixup
1. realize that something does not work
2. fix that
3. commit it
Sometimes the thing fixed in b.2. cannot be amended to the not-quite perfect commit it fixes, because
that commit is buried deeply in a patch series. That is exactly what interactive rebase is for: use
it after plenty of "a"s and "b"s, by rearranging and editing commits, and squashing multiple commits
into one.
Start it with the last commit you want to retain as-is:
git rebase -i <after-this-commit>
An editor will be fired up with all the commits in your current branch (ignoring merge commits),
which come after the given commit. You can reorder the commits in this list to your heart's content,
and you can remove them. The list looks more or less like this:
pick deadbee The oneline of this commit
pick fa1afe1 The oneline of the next commit
...
The oneline descriptions are purely for your pleasure; git rebase will not look at them but at the
commit names ("deadbee" and "fa1afe1" in this example), so do not delete or edit the names.
By replacing the command "pick" with the command "edit", you can tell git rebase to stop after
applying that commit, so that you can edit the files and/or the commit message, amend the commit, and
continue rebasing.
If you just want to edit the commit message for a commit, replace the command "pick" with the command
"reword".
If you want to fold two or more commits into one, replace the command "pick" for the second and
subsequent commits with "squash" or "fixup". If the commits had different authors, the folded commit
will be attributed to the author of the first commit. The suggested commit message for the folded
commit is the concatenation of the commit messages of the first commit and of those with the "squash"
command, but omits the commit messages of commits with the "fixup" command.
git rebase will stop when "pick" has been replaced with "edit" or when a command fails due to merge
errors. When you are done editing and/or resolving conflicts you can continue with git rebase
--continue.
For example, if you want to reorder the last 5 commits, such that what was HEAD~4 becomes the new
HEAD. To achieve that, you would call git rebase like this:
$ git rebase -i HEAD~5
And move the first patch to the end of the list.
You might want to preserve merges, if you have a history like this:
X
\
A---M---B
/
---o---O---P---Q
Suppose you want to rebase the side branch starting at "A" to "Q". Make sure that the current HEAD is
"B", and call
$ git rebase -i -p --onto Q O
Reordering and editing commits usually creates untested intermediate steps. You may want to check
that your history editing did not break anything by running a test, or at least recompiling at
intermediate points in history by using the "exec" command (shortcut "x"). You may do so by creating
a todo list like this one:
pick deadbee Implement feature XXX
fixup f1a5c00 Fix to feature XXX
exec make
pick c0ffeee The oneline of the next commit
edit deadbab The oneline of the commit after
exec cd subdir; make test
...
The interactive rebase will stop when a command fails (i.e. exits with non-0 status) to give you an
opportunity to fix the problem. You can continue with git rebase --continue.
The "exec" command launches the command in a shell (the one specified in $SHELL, or the default shell
if $SHELL is not set), so you can use shell features (like "cd", ">", ";" ...). The command is run
from the root of the working tree.
$ git rebase -i --exec "make test"
This command lets you check that intermediate commits are compilable. The todo list becomes like
that:
pick 5928aea one
exec make test
pick 04d0fda two
exec make test
pick ba46169 three
exec make test
pick f4593f9 four
exec make test
SPLITTING COMMITS
In interactive mode, you can mark commits with the action "edit". However, this does not necessarily
mean that git rebase expects the result of this edit to be exactly one commit. Indeed, you can undo
the commit, or you can add other commits. This can be used to split a commit into two:
• Start an interactive rebase with git rebase -i <commit>^, where <commit> is the commit you want
to split. In fact, any commit range will do, as long as it contains that commit.
• Mark the commit you want to split with the action "edit".
• When it comes to editing that commit, execute git reset HEAD^. The effect is that the HEAD is
rewound by one, and the index follows suit. However, the working tree stays the same.
• Now add the changes to the index that you want to have in the first commit. You can use git add
(possibly interactively) or git gui (or both) to do that.
• Commit the now-current index with whatever commit message is appropriate now.
• Repeat the last two steps until your working tree is clean.
• Continue the rebase with git rebase --continue.
If you are not absolutely sure that the intermediate revisions are consistent (they compile, pass the
testsuite, etc.) you should use git stash to stash away the not-yet-committed changes after each
commit, test, and amend the commit if fixes are necessary.
RECOVERING FROM UPSTREAM REBASE
Rebasing (or any other form of rewriting) a branch that others have based work on is a bad idea:
anyone downstream of it is forced to manually fix their history. This section explains how to do the
fix from the downstream's point of view. The real fix, however, would be to avoid rebasing the
upstream in the first place.
To illustrate, suppose you are in a situation where someone develops a subsystem branch, and you are
working on a topic that is dependent on this subsystem. You might end up with a history like the
following:
o---o---o---o---o---o---o---o---o master
\
o---o---o---o---o subsystem
\
*---*---* topic
If subsystem is rebased against master, the following happens:
o---o---o---o---o---o---o---o master
\ \
o---o---o---o---o o'--o'--o'--o'--o' subsystem
\
*---*---* topic
If you now continue development as usual, and eventually merge topic to subsystem, the commits from
subsystem will remain duplicated forever:
o---o---o---o---o---o---o---o master
\ \
o---o---o---o---o o'--o'--o'--o'--o'--M subsystem
\ /
*---*---*-..........-*--* topic
Such duplicates are generally frowned upon because they clutter up history, making it harder to
follow. To clean things up, you need to transplant the commits on topic to the new subsystem tip,
i.e., rebase topic. This becomes a ripple effect: anyone downstream from topic is forced to rebase
too, and so on!
There are two kinds of fixes, discussed in the following subsections:
Easy case: The changes are literally the same.
This happens if the subsystem rebase was a simple rebase and had no conflicts.
Hard case: The changes are not the same.
This happens if the subsystem rebase had conflicts, or used --interactive to omit, edit, squash,
or fixup commits; or if the upstream used one of commit --amend, reset, or filter-branch.
The easy case
Only works if the changes (patch IDs based on the diff contents) on subsystem are literally the same
before and after the rebase subsystem did.
In that case, the fix is easy because git rebase knows to skip changes that are already present in
the new upstream. So if you say (assuming you're on topic)
$ git rebase subsystem
you will end up with the fixed history
o---o---o---o---o---o---o---o master
\
o'--o'--o'--o'--o' subsystem
\
*---*---* topic
The hard case
Things get more complicated if the subsystem changes do not exactly correspond to the ones before the
rebase.
Note
While an "easy case recovery" sometimes appears to be successful even in the hard case, it may
have unintended consequences. For example, a commit that was removed via git rebase --interactive
will be resurrected!
The idea is to manually tell git rebase "where the old subsystem ended and your topic began", that
is, what the old merge-base between them was. You will have to find a way to name the last commit of
the old subsystem, for example:
• With the subsystem reflog: after git fetch, the old tip of subsystem is at subsystem@{1}.
Subsequent fetches will increase the number. (See git-reflog(1).)
• Relative to the tip of topic: knowing that your topic has three commits, the old tip of subsystem
must be topic~3.
You can then transplant the old subsystem..topic to the new tip by saying (for the reflog case, and
assuming you are on topic already):
$ git rebase --onto subsystem subsystem@{1}
The ripple effect of a "hard case" recovery is especially bad: everyone downstream from topic will
now have to perform a "hard case" recovery too!
BUGS
The todo list presented by --preserve-merges --interactive does not represent the topology of the
revision graph. Editing commits and rewording their commit messages should work fine, but attempts to
reorder commits tend to produce counterintuitive results.
For example, an attempt to rearrange
1 --- 2 --- 3 --- 4 --- 5
to
1 --- 2 --- 4 --- 3 --- 5
by moving the "pick 4" line will result in the following history:
3
/
1 --- 2 --- 4 --- 5
GIT
Part of the git(1) suite
NOTES
1. revert-a-faulty-merge How-To
git-htmldocs/howto/revert-a-faulty-merge.txt
Git 1.8.3 05/24/2013 GIT-REBASE(1)
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