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PERLOOTUT(1)                          Perl Programmers Reference Guide                          PERLOOTUT(1)



NAME
       perlootut - Object-Oriented Programming in Perl Tutorial

DATE
       This document was created in February, 2011.

DESCRIPTION
       This document provides an introduction to object-oriented programming in Perl. It begins with a brief
       overview of the concepts behind object oriented design. Then it introduces several different OO
       systems from CPAN <http://search.cpan.org> which build on top of what Perl provides.

       By default, Perl's built-in OO system is very minimal, leaving you to do most of the work. This
       minimalism made a lot of sense in 1994, but in the years since Perl 5.0 we've seen a number of common
       patterns emerge in Perl OO. Fortunately, Perl's flexibility has allowed a rich ecosystem of Perl OO
       systems to flourish.

       If you want to know how Perl OO works under the hood, the perlobj document explains the nitty gritty
       details.

       This document assumes that you already understand the basics of Perl syntax, variable types,
       operators, and subroutine calls. If you don't understand these concepts yet, please read perlintro
       first. You should also read the perlsyn, perlop, and perlsub documents.

OBJECT-ORIENTED FUNDAMENTALS
       Most object systems share a number of common concepts. You've probably heard terms like "class",
       "object, "method", and "attribute" before.  Understanding the concepts will make it much easier to
       read and write object-oriented code. If you're already familiar with these terms, you should still
       skim this section, since it explains each concept in terms of Perl's OO implementation.

       Perl's OO system is class-based. Class-based OO is fairly common. It's used by Java, C++, C#, Python,
       Ruby, and many other languages. There are other object orientation paradigms as well. JavaScript is
       the most popular language to use another paradigm. JavaScript's OO system is prototype-based.

   Object
       An object is a data structure that bundles together data and subroutines which operate on that data.
       An object's data is called attributes, and its subroutines are called methods. An object can be
       thought of as a noun (a person, a web service, a computer).

       An object represents a single discrete thing. For example, an object might represent a file. The
       attributes for a file object might include its path, content, and last modification time. If we
       created an object to represent /etc/hostname on a machine named "foo.example.com", that object's path
       would be "/etc/hostname", its content would be "foo\n", and it's last modification time would be
       1304974868 seconds since the beginning of the epoch.

       The methods associated with a file might include "rename()" and "write()".

       In Perl most objects are hashes, but the OO systems we recommend keep you from having to worry about
       this. In practice, it's best to consider an object's internal data structure opaque.

   Class
       A class defines the behavior of a category of objects. A class is a name for a category (like
       "File"), and a class also defines the behavior of objects in that category.

       All objects belong to a specific class. For example, our /etc/hostname object belongs to the "File"
       class. When we want to create a specific object, we start with its class, and construct or
       instantiate an object. A specific object is often referred to as an instance of a class.

       In Perl, any package can be a class. The difference between a package which is a class and one which
       isn't is based on how the package is used. Here's our "class declaration" for the "File" class:

         package File;

       In Perl, there is no special keyword for constructing an object.  However, most OO modules on CPAN
       use a method named "new()" to construct a new object:

         my $hostname = File->new(
             path          => '/etc/hostname',
             content       => "foo\n",
             last_mod_time => 1304974868,
         );

       (Don't worry about that "->" operator, it will be explained later.)

       Blessing

       As we said earlier, most Perl objects are hashes, but an object can be an instance of any Perl data
       type (scalar, array, etc.). Turning a plain data structure into an object is done by blessing that
       data structure using Perl's "bless" function.

       While we strongly suggest you don't build your objects from scratch, you should know the term bless.
       A blessed data structure (aka "a referent") is an object. We sometimes say that an object has been
       "blessed into a class".

       Once a referent has been blessed, the "blessed" function from the Scalar::Util core module can tell
       us its class name. This subroutine returns an object's class when passed an object, and false
       otherwise.

         use Scalar::Util 'blessed';

         print blessed($hash);      # undef
         print blessed($hostname);  # File

       Constructor

       A constructor creates a new object. In Perl, a class's constructor is just another method, unlike
       some other languages, which provide syntax for constructors. Most Perl classes use "new" as the name
       for their constructor:

         my $file = File->new(...);

   Methods
       You already learned that a method is a subroutine that operates on an object. You can think of a
       method as the things that an object can do. If an object is a noun, then methods are its verbs (save,
       print, open).

       In Perl, methods are simply subroutines that live in a class's package.  Methods are always written
       to receive the object as their first argument:

         sub print_info {
             my $self = shift;

             print "This file is at ", $self->path, "\n";
         }

         $file->print_info;
         # The file is at /etc/hostname

       What makes a method special is how it's called. The arrow operator ("->") tells Perl that we are
       calling a method.

       When we make a method call, Perl arranges for the method's invocant to be passed as the first
       argument. Invocant is a fancy name for the thing on the left side of the arrow. The invocant can
       either be a class name or an object. We can also pass additional arguments to the method:

         sub print_info {
             my $self   = shift;
             my $prefix = shift // "This file is at ";

             print $prefix, ", ", $self->path, "\n";
         }

         $file->print_info("The file is located at ");
         # The file is located at /etc/hostname

   Attributes
       Each class can define its attributes. When we instantiate an object, we assign values to those
       attributes. For example, every "File" object has a path. Attributes are sometimes called properties.

       Perl has no special syntax for attributes. Under the hood, attributes are often stored as keys in the
       object's underlying hash, but don't worry about this.

       We recommend that you only access attributes via accessor methods.  These are methods that can get or
       set the value of each attribute. We saw this earlier in the "print_info()" example, which calls
       "$self->path".

       You might also see the terms getter and setter. These are two types of accessors. A getter gets the
       attribute's value, while a setter sets it. Another term for a setter is mutator

       Attributes are typically defined as read-only or read-write. Read-only attributes can only be set
       when the object is first created, while read-write attributes can be altered at any time.

       The value of an attribute may itself be another object. For example, instead of returning its last
       mod time as a number, the "File" class could return a DateTime object representing that value.

       It's possible to have a class that does not expose any publicly settable attributes. Not every class
       has attributes and methods.

   Polymorphism
       Polymorphism is a fancy way of saying that objects from two different classes share an API. For
       example, we could have "File" and "WebPage" classes which both have a "print_content()" method. This
       method might produce different output for each class, but they share a common interface.

       While the two classes may differ in many ways, when it comes to the "print_content()" method, they
       are the same. This means that we can try to call the "print_content()" method on an object of either
       class, and we don't have to know what class the object belongs to!

       Polymorphism is one of the key concepts of object-oriented design.

   Inheritance
       Inheritance lets you create a specialized version of an existing class. Inheritance lets the new
       class to reuse the methods and attributes of another class.

       For example, we could create an "File::MP3" class which inherits from "File". An "File::MP3" is-a
       more specific type of "File".  All mp3 files are files, but not all files are mp3 files.

       We often refer to inheritance relationships as parent-child or "superclass/subclass" relationships.
       Sometimes we say that the child has an is-a relationship with its parent class.

       "File" is a superclass of "File::MP3", and "File::MP3" is a subclass of "File".

         package File::MP3;

         use parent 'File';

       The parent module is one of several ways that Perl lets you define inheritance relationships.

       Perl allows multiple inheritance, which means that a class can inherit from multiple parents. While
       this is possible, we strongly recommend against it. Generally, you can use roles to do everything you
       can do with multiple inheritance, but in a cleaner way.

       Note that there's nothing wrong with defining multiple subclasses of a given class. This is both
       common and safe. For example, we might define "File::MP3::FixedBitrate" and
       "File::MP3::VariableBitrate" classes to distinguish between different types of mp3 file.

       Overriding methods and method resolution

       Inheritance allows two classes to share code. By default, every method in the parent class is also
       available in the child. The child can explicitly override a parent's method to provide its own
       implementation. For example, if we have an "File::MP3" object, it has the "print_info()" method from
       "File":

         my $cage = File::MP3->new(
             path          => 'mp3s/My-Body-Is-a-Cage.mp3',
             content       => $mp3_data,
             last_mod_time => 1304974868,
             title         => 'My Body Is a Cage',
         );

         $cage->print_info;
         # The file is at mp3s/My-Body-Is-a-Cage.mp3

       If we wanted to include the mp3's title in the greeting, we could override the method:

         package File::MP3;

         use parent 'File';

         sub print_info {
             my $self = shift;

             print "This file is at ", $self->path, "\n";
             print "Its title is ", $self->title, "\n";
         }

         $cage->print_info;
         # The file is at mp3s/My-Body-Is-a-Cage.mp3
         # Its title is My Body Is a Cage

       The process of determining what method should be used is called method resolution. What Perl does is
       look at the object's class first ("File::MP3" in this case). If that class defines the method, then
       that class's version of the method is called. If not, Perl looks at each parent class in turn. For
       "File::MP3", its only parent is "File". If "File::MP3" does not define the method, but "File" does,
       then Perl calls the method in "File".

       If "File" inherited from "DataSource", which inherited from "Thing", then Perl would keep looking "up
       the chain" if necessary.

       It is possible to explicitly call a parent method from a child:

         package File::MP3;

         use parent 'File';

         sub print_info {
             my $self = shift;

             $self->SUPER::print_info();
             print "Its title is ", $self->title, "\n";
         }

       The "SUPER::" bit tells Perl to look for the "print_info()" in the "File::MP3" class's inheritance
       chain. When it finds the parent class that implements this method, the method is called.

       We mentioned multiple inheritance earlier. The main problem with multiple inheritance is that it
       greatly complicates method resolution.  See perlobj for more details.

   Encapsulation
       Encapsulation is the idea that an object is opaque. When another developer uses your class, they
       don't need to know how it is implemented, they just need to know what it does.

       Encapsulation is important for several reasons. First, it allows you to separate the public API from
       the private implementation. This means you can change that implementation without breaking the API.

       Second, when classes are well encapsulated, they become easier to subclass. Ideally, a subclass uses
       the same APIs to access object data that its parent class uses. In reality, subclassing sometimes
       involves violating encapsulation, but a good API can minimize the need to do this.

       We mentioned earlier that most Perl objects are implemented as hashes under the hood. The principle
       of encapsulation tells us that we should not rely on this. Instead, we should use accessor methods to
       access the data in that hash. The object systems that we recommend below all automate the generation
       of accessor methods. If you use one of them, you should never have to access the object as a hash
       directly.

   Composition
       In object-oriented code, we often find that one object references another object. This is called
       composition, or a has-a relationship.

       Earlier, we mentioned that the "File" class's "last_mod_time" accessor could return a DateTime
       object. This is a perfect example of composition. We could go even further, and make the "path" and
       "content" accessors return objects as well. The "File" class would then be composed of several other
       objects.

   Roles
       Roles are something that a class does, rather than something that it is. Roles are relatively new to
       Perl, but have become rather popular. Roles are applied to classes. Sometimes we say that classes
       consume roles.

       Roles are an alternative to inheritance for providing polymorphism.  Let's assume we have two
       classes, "Radio" and "Computer". Both of these things have on/off switches. We want to model that in
       our class definitions.

       We could have both classes inherit from a common parent, like "Machine", but not all machines have
       on/off switches. We could create a parent class called "HasOnOffSwitch", but that is very artificial.
       Radios and computers are not specializations of this parent. This parent is really a rather
       ridiculous creation.

       This is where roles come in. It makes a lot of sense to create a "HasOnOffSwitch" role and apply it
       to both classes. This role would define a known API like providing "turn_on()" and "turn_off()"
       methods.

       Perl does not have any built-in way to express roles. In the past, people just bit the bullet and
       used multiple inheritance. Nowadays, there are several good choices on CPAN for using roles.

   When to Use OO
       Object Orientation is not the best solution to every problem. In Perl Best Practices (copyright 2004,
       Published by O'Reilly Media, Inc.), Damian Conway provides a list of criteria to use when deciding if
       OO is the right fit for your problem:

       •   The system being designed is large, or is likely to become large.

       •   The data can be aggregated into obvious structures, especially if there's a large amount of data
           in each aggregate.

       •   The various types of data aggregate form a natural hierarchy that facilitates the use of
           inheritance and polymorphism.

       •   You have a piece of data on which many different operations are applied.

       •   You need to perform the same general operations on related types of data, but with slight
           variations depending on the specific type of data the operations are applied to.

       •   It's likely you'll have to add new data types later.

       •   The typical interactions between pieces of data are best represented by operators.

       •   The implementation of individual components of the system is likely to change over time.

       •   The system design is already object-oriented.

       •   Large numbers of other programmers will be using your code modules.

PERL OO SYSTEMS
       As we mentioned before, Perl's built-in OO system is very minimal, but also quite flexible. Over the
       years, many people have developed systems which build on top of Perl's built-in system to provide
       more features and convenience.

       We strongly recommend that you use one of these systems. Even the most minimal of them eliminates a
       lot of repetitive boilerplate. There's really no good reason to write your classes from scratch in
       Perl.

       If you are interested in the guts underlying these systems, check out perlobj.

   Moose
       Moose bills itself as a "postmodern object system for Perl 5". Don't be scared, the "postmodern"
       label is a callback to Larry's description of Perl as "the first postmodern computer language".

       "Moose" provides a complete, modern OO system. Its biggest influence is the Common Lisp Object
       System, but it also borrows ideas from Smalltalk and several other languages. "Moose" was created by
       Stevan Little, and draws heavily from his work on the Perl 6 OO design.

       Here is our "File" class using "Moose":

         package File;
         use Moose;

         has path          => ( is => 'ro' );
         has content       => ( is => 'ro' );
         has last_mod_time => ( is => 'ro' );

         sub print_info {
             my $self = shift;

             print "This file is at ", $self->path, "\n";
         }

       "Moose" provides a number of features:

       •   Declarative sugar

           "Moose" provides a layer of declarative "sugar" for defining classes.  That sugar is just a set
           of exported functions that make declaring how your class works simpler and more palatable.  This
           lets you describe what your class is, rather than having to tell Perl how to implement your
           class.

           The "has()" subroutine declares an attribute, and "Moose" automatically creates accessors for
           these attributes. It also takes care of creating a "new()" method for you. This constructor knows
           about the attributes you declared, so you can set them when creating a new "File".

       •   Roles built-in

           "Moose" lets you define roles the same way you define classes:

             package HasOnOfSwitch;
             use Moose::Role;

             has is_on => (
                 is  => 'rw',
                 isa => 'Bool',
             );

             sub turn_on {
                 my $self = shift;
                 $self->is_on(1);
             }

             sub turn_off {
                 my $self = shift;
                 $self->is_on(0);
             }

       •   A miniature type system

           In the example above, you can see that we passed "isa => 'Bool'" to "has()" when creating our
           "is_on" attribute. This tells "Moose" that this attribute must be a boolean value. If we try to
           set it to an invalid value, our code will throw an error.

       •   Full introspection and manipulation

           Perl's built-in introspection features are fairly minimal. "Moose" builds on top of them and
           creates a full introspection layer for your classes. This lets you ask questions like "what
           methods does the File class implement?" It also lets you modify your classes programmatically.

       •   Self-hosted and extensible

           "Moose" describes itself using its own introspection API. Besides being a cool trick, this means
           that you can extend "Moose" using "Moose" itself.

       •   Rich ecosystem

           There is a rich ecosystem of "Moose" extensions on CPAN under the MooseX
           <http://search.cpan.org/search?query=MooseX&mode=dist> namespace. In addition, many modules on
           CPAN already use "Moose", providing you with lots of examples to learn from.

       •   Many more features

           "Moose" is a very powerful tool, and we can't cover all of its features here. We encourage you to
           learn more by reading the "Moose" documentation, starting with Moose::Manual
           <http://search.cpan.org/perldoc?Moose::Manual>.

       Of course, "Moose" isn't perfect.

       "Moose" can make your code slower to load. "Moose" itself is not small, and it does a lot of code
       generation when you define your class. This code generation means that your runtime code is as fast
       as it can be, but you pay for this when your modules are first loaded.

       This load time hit can be a problem when startup speed is important, such as with a command-line
       script or a "plain vanilla" CGI script that must be loaded each time it is executed.

       Before you panic, know that many people do use "Moose" for command-line tools and other startup-sensitive startupsensitive
       sensitive code. We encourage you to try "Moose" out first before worrying about startup speed.

       "Moose" also has several dependencies on other modules. Most of these are small stand-alone modules,
       a number of which have been spun off from "Moose". "Moose" itself, and some of its dependencies,
       require a compiler. If you need to install your software on a system without a compiler, or if having
       any dependencies is a problem, then "Moose" may not be right for you.

       Mouse

       If you try "Moose" and find that one of these issues is preventing you from using "Moose", we
       encourage you to consider Mouse next.  "Mouse" implements a subset of "Moose"'s functionality in a
       simpler package. For all features that it does implement, the end-user API is identical to "Moose",
       meaning you can switch from "Mouse" to "Moose" quite easily.

       "Mouse" does not implement most of "Moose"'s introspection API, so it's often faster when loading
       your modules. Additionally, all of its required dependencies ship with the Perl core, and it can run
       without a compiler. If you do have a compiler, "Mouse" will use it to compile some of its code for a
       speed boost.

       Finally, it ships with a "Mouse::Tiny" module that takes most of "Mouse"'s features and bundles them
       up in a single module file. You can copy this module file into your application's library directory
       for easy bundling.

       The "Moose" authors hope that one day "Mouse" can be made obsolete by improving "Moose" enough, but
       for now it provides a worthwhile alternative to "Moose".

   Class::Accessor
       Class::Accessor is the polar opposite of "Moose". It provides very few features, nor is it self-hosting. selfhosting.
       hosting.

       It is, however, very simple, pure Perl, and it has no non-core dependencies. It also provides a
       "Moose-like" API on demand for the features it supports.

       Even though it doesn't do much, it is still preferable to writing your own classes from scratch.

       Here's our "File" class with "Class::Accessor":

         package File;
         use Class::Accessor 'antlers';

         has path          => ( is => 'ro' );
         has content       => ( is => 'ro' );
         has last_mod_time => ( is => 'ro' );

         sub print_info {
             my $self = shift;

             print "This file is at ", $self->path, "\n";
         }

       The "antlers" import flag tells "Class::Accessor" that you want to define your attributes using
       "Moose"-like syntax. The only parameter that you can pass to "has" is "is". We recommend that you use
       this Moose-like syntax if you choose "Class::Accessor" since it means you will have a smoother
       upgrade path if you later decide to move to "Moose".

       Like "Moose", "Class::Accessor" generates accessor methods and a constructor for your class.

   Object::Tiny
       Finally, we have Object::Tiny. This module truly lives up to its name. It has an incredibly minimal
       API and absolutely no dependencies (core or not). Still, we think it's a lot easier to use than
       writing your own OO code from scratch.

       Here's our "File" class once more:

         package File;
         use Object::Tiny qw( path content last_mod_time );

         sub print_info {
             my $self = shift;

             print "This file is at ", $self->path, "\n";
         }

       That's it!

       With "Object::Tiny", all accessors are read-only. It generates a constructor for you, as well as the
       accessors you define.

   Role::Tiny
       As we mentioned before, roles provide an alternative to inheritance, but Perl does not have any
       built-in role support. If you choose to use Moose, it comes with a full-fledged role implementation.
       However, if you use one of our other recommended OO modules, you can still use roles with Role::Tiny

       "Role::Tiny" provides some of the same features as Moose's role system, but in a much smaller
       package. Most notably, it doesn't support any sort of attribute declaration, so you have to do that
       by hand.  Still, it's useful, and works well with "Class::Accessor" and "Object::Tiny"

   OO System Summary
       Here's a brief recap of the options we covered:

       •   Moose

           "Moose" is the maximal option. It has a lot of features, a big ecosystem, and a thriving user
           base. We also covered Mouse briefly.  "Mouse" is "Moose" lite, and a reasonable alternative when
           Moose doesn't work for your application.

       •   Class::Accessor

           "Class::Accessor" does a lot less than "Moose", and is a nice alternative if you find "Moose"
           overwhelming. It's been around a long time and is well battle-tested. It also has a minimal
           "Moose" compatibility mode which makes moving from "Class::Accessor" to "Moose" easy.

       •   Object::Tiny

           "Object::Tiny" is the absolute minimal option. It has no dependencies, and almost no syntax to
           learn. It's a good option for a super minimal environment and for throwing something together
           quickly without having to worry about details.

       •   Role::Tiny

           Use "Role::Tiny" with "Class::Accessor" or "Object::Tiny" if you find yourself considering
           multiple inheritance. If you go with "Moose", it comes with its own role implementation.

   Other OO Systems
       There are literally dozens of other OO-related modules on CPAN besides those covered here, and you're
       likely to run across one or more of them if you work with other people's code.

       In addition, plenty of code in the wild does all of its OO "by hand", using just the Perl built-in OO
       features. If you need to maintain such code, you should read perlobj to understand exactly how Perl's
       built-in OO works.

CONCLUSION
       As we said before, Perl's minimal OO system has led to a profusion of OO systems on CPAN. While you
       can still drop down to the bare metal and write your classes by hand, there's really no reason to do
       that with modern Perl.

       For small systems, Object::Tiny and Class::Accessor both provide minimal object systems that take
       care of basic boilerplate for you.

       For bigger projects, Moose provides a rich set of features that will let you focus on implementing
       your business logic.

       We encourage you to play with and evaluate Moose, Class::Accessor, and Object::Tiny to see which OO
       system is right for you.



perl v5.16.2                                     2012-10-25                                     PERLOOTUT(1)