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EXP(3)                   BSD Library Functions Manual                   EXP(3)

NAME
     exp, exp2, expm1 -- exponential functions

SYNOPSIS
     #include <math.h>

     float
     expf(float x);

     double
     exp(double x);

     long double
     expl(long double x);

     float
     exp2f(float x);

     double
     exp2(double x);

     long double
     exp2l(long double x);

     float
     expm1f(float x);

     double
     expm1(double x);

     long double
     expm1l(long double x);

     float
     __exp10f(float x);

     double
     __exp10(double x);

DESCRIPTION
     The exp() function computes e**x, the base-e exponential of x.

     The exp2() function computes 2**x, the base-2 exponential of x.

     The __exp10() function computes 10**x; it is not defined in the C standard, and therefore may not be
     portable to other platforms.  It is provided as a convenience to programmers because it may be computed
     more efficiently than pow(10,x).

     If x is nearly zero, then the common expression exp(x) - 1.0 will suffer from catastrophic cancellation
     and the result will have little or no precision.  The expm1() function provides an alternative means to
     do this calculation without the risk of significant loss of precision.  If you find yourself using this
     function, you are likely to also be interested in the log1p() function.

     Note that computations numerically equivalent to exp(x) - 1.0 are often hidden in more complicated
     expressions; some amount of algebraic manipulation may be necessary to take advantage of the expm1()
     function.  Consider the following example, abstracted from a developer's actual production code in a
     bug report:

           double z = exp(-x/y)*(x*x/y/y + 2*x/y + 2) - 2

     When x is small relative to y, this expression is approximately equal to:

           double z = 2*(exp(-x/y) - 1)

     and all precision of the result is lost in the computation due to catastrophic cancellation.  The
     developer was aware that they were losing precision, but didn't know what to do about it.  To remedy
     the situation, we do a little algebra and re-write the expression to take advantage of the expm1()
     function:

             exp(-x/y)*(x*x/y/y + 2*x/y + 2) - 2
           = (2*exp(-x/y) - 2) + exp(-x/y)*((x*x)/(y*y) + 2*x/y)

     This transformation allows the result to be computed to a high degree of accuracy as follows:

           const double r = x/y;
           const double emrm1 = expm1(-r);
           double z = 2.0*emrm1 + (1.0 + emrm1)*(2.0 + r)*r;

     It is not always easy to spot such opportunities for improvement; if an expression involving exp()
     seems to be suffering from an undue loss of accuracy, try a few simple algebraic operations to see if
     you can identify a factor with the form exp(x) - 1.0, and substitute expm1(x) in its place.

SPECIAL VALUES
     exp(+-_) and exp2(+-_) return 1.

     exp(-infinity) and exp2(-infinity) return +0.

     exp(+infinity) and exp2(+infinity) return +infinity.

     expm1(+-_) returns +-0.

     expm1(-infinity) returns -1.

     expm1(+infinity) returns +infinity.

     For all these functions, a range error occurs if the magnitude of x is too large.

VECTOR OPERATIONS
     If you need to apply the exp() functions to SIMD vectors or arrays, using the following functions pro-vided provided
     vided by the Accelerate.framework may give significantly better performance:

     #include <Accelerate/Accelerate.h>

     vFloat vexpf(vFloat x);
     vFloat vexpm1f(vFloat x);
     void vvexpf(float *y, const float *x, const int *n);
     void vvexp(double *y, const double *x, const int *n);
     void vvexpm1f(float *y, const float *x, const int *n);
     void vvexpm1(double *y, const double *x, const int *n);
     void vvexp2f(float *y, const float *x, const int *n);
     void vvexp2(double *y, const double *x, const int *n);

SEE ALSO
     log(3), pow(3), math(3)

STANDARDS
     The exp(), exp2(), and expm1() functions conform to ISO/IEC 9899:2011.

4th Berkeley Distribution       August 16, 2012      4th Berkeley Distribution