constexpr спецификатор (начиная с C++11)

constexpr int f(); 
constexpr bool b1 = noexcept(f()); // false, undefined constexpr function
constexpr int f() { return 0; }
constexpr bool b2 = noexcept(f()); // true, f() is a constant expression

void f(int& i) // not a constexpr function
{
    i = 0;
}

constexpr void g(int& i) // well-formed since C++23
{
    f(i); // unconditionally calls f, cannot be a constant expression
}

static constexpr int const& x = 42; // constexpr reference to a const int object
                                    // (the object has static storage duration
                                    //  due to life extension by a static reference)

Определяет функции constexpr C++11/14 для вычисления факториалов; определяет литеральный тип, расширяющий строковые литералы:

#include <iostream>
#include <stdexcept>

// C++11 constexpr functions use recursion rather than iteration
constexpr int factorial(int n)
{
    return n <= 1 ? 1 : (n * factorial(n - 1));
}

// C++14 constexpr functions may use local variables and loops
#if __cplusplus >= 201402L
constexpr int factorial_cxx14(int n)
{
    int res = 1;
    while (n > 1)
        res *= n--;
    return res;
}
#endif // C++14

// A literal class
class conststr
{
    const char* p;
    std::size_t sz;
public:
    template<std::size_t N>
    constexpr conststr(const char(&a)[N]): p(a), sz(N - 1) {}
    
    // constexpr functions signal errors by throwing exceptions
    // in C++11, they must do so from the conditional operator ?:
    constexpr char operator[](std::size_t n) const
    {
        return n < sz ? p[n] : throw std::out_of_range("");
    }
    
    constexpr std::size_t size() const { return sz; }
};

// C++11 constexpr functions had to put everything in a single return statement
// (C++14 does not have that requirement)
constexpr std::size_t countlower(conststr s, std::size_t n = 0,
                                             std::size_t c = 0)
{
    return n == s.size() ? c :
        'a' <= s[n] && s[n] <= 'z' ? countlower(s, n + 1, c + 1)
                                   : countlower(s, n + 1, c);
}

// An output function that requires a compile-time constant, for testing
template<int n>
struct constN
{
    constN() { std::cout << n << '\n'; }
};

int main()
{
    std::cout << "4! = ";
    constN<factorial(4)> out1; // computed at compile time
    
    volatile int k = 8; // disallow optimization using volatile
    std::cout << k << "! = " << factorial(k) << '\n'; // computed at run time
    
    std::cout << "The number of lowercase letters in \"Hello, world!\" is ";
    constN<countlower("Hello, world!")> out2; // implicitly converted to conststr
    
    constexpr int a[12] = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8};
    constexpr int length_a = sizeof a / sizeof(int); // std::size(a) in C++17,
                                                      // std::ssize(a) in C++20
    std::cout << "Array of length " << length_a << " has elements: ";
    for (int i = 0; i < length_a; ++i)
        std::cout << a[i] << ' ';
    std::cout << '\n';
}

Вывод:

4! = 24
8! = 40320
The number of lowercase letters in "Hello, world!" is 9
Array of length 12 has elements: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 0 0