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CHAPTER 8

Classes

Class declarations define new reference types and describe how they are implemented (§8.1).

A nested class is any class whose declaration occurs within the body of another class or interface. A top level class is a class that is not a nested class.

This chapter discusses the common semantics of all classes-top level (§7.6) and nested (including member classes (§8.5, §9.5), local classes (§14.3) and anonymous classes (§15.9.5)). Details that are specific to particular kinds of classes are discussed in the sections dedicated to these constructs.

A named class may be declared abstract (§8.1.1.1) and must be declared abstract if it is incompletely implemented; such a class cannot be instantiated, but can be extended by subclasses. A class may be declared final (§8.1.1.2), in which case it cannot have subclasses. If a class is declared public, then it can be referred to from other packages. Each class except Object is an extension of (that is, a subclass of) a single existing class (§8.1.4) and may implement interfaces (§8.1.5). Classes may be generic, that is, they may declare type variables (§4.4) whose bindings may differ among different instances of the class.

Classes may be decorated with annotations (§9.7) just like any other kind of declaration.

The body of a class declares members (fields and methods and nested classes and interfaces), instance and static initializers, and constructors (§8.1.6). The scope (§6.3) of a member (§8.2) is the entire body of the declaration of the class to which the member belongs. Field, method, member class, member interface, and constructor declarations may include the access modifiers (§6.6) public, protected, or private. The members of a class include both declared and inherited members (§8.2). Newly declared fields can hide fields declared in a superclass or superinterface. Newly declared class members and interface members can hide class or interface members declared in a superclass or superinterface. Newly declared methods can hide, implement, or override methods declared in a superclass or superinterface.

Field declarations (§8.3) describe class variables, which are incarnated once, and instance variables, which are freshly incarnated for each instance of the class. A field may be declared final (§8.3.1.2), in which case it can be assigned to only once. Any field declaration may include an initializer.

Member class declarations (§8.5) describe nested classes that are members of the surrounding class. Member classes may be static, in which case they have no access to the instance variables of the surrounding class; or they may be inner classes (§8.1.3).

Member interface declarations (§8.5) describe nested interfaces that are members of the surrounding class.

Method declarations (§8.4) describe code that may be invoked by method invocation expressions (§15.12). A class method is invoked relative to the class type; an instance method is invoked with respect to some particular object that is an instance of a class type. A method whose declaration does not indicate how it is implemented must be declared abstract. A method may be declared final (§8.4.3.3), in which case it cannot be hidden or overridden. A method may be implemented by platform-dependent native code (§8.4.3.4). A synchronized method (§8.4.3.6) automatically locks an object before executing its body and automatically unlocks the object on return, as if by use of a synchronized statement (§14.19), thus allowing its activities to be synchronized with those of other threads (§17).

Method names may be overloaded (§8.4.9).

Instance initializers (§8.6) are blocks of executable code that may be used to help initialize an instance when it is created (§15.9).

Static initializers (§8.7) are blocks of executable code that may be used to help initialize a class.

Constructors (§8.8) are similar to methods, but cannot be invoked directly by a method call; they are used to initialize new class instances. Like methods, they may be overloaded (§8.8.8).

8.1 Class Declaration

ClassDeclaration:
		NormalClassDeclaration	
		EnumDeclaration

NormalClassDeclaration:
	ClassModifiersopt class Identifier TypeParametersopt Superopt Interfacesopt 
ClassBody

The Identifier in a class declaration specifies the name of the class. A compile-time error occurs if a class has the same simple name as any of its enclosing classes or interfaces.

8.1.1 Class Modifiers

ClassModifiers:
	ClassModifier
	ClassModifiers ClassModifier

ClassModifier: one of
	Annotation public protected private
	abstract static final strictfp 

If an annotation a on a class declaration corresponds to an annotation type T, and T has a (meta-)annotation m that corresponds to annotation.Target, then m must have an element whose value is annotation.ElementType.TYPE, or a compile-time error occurs. Annotation modifiers are described further in §9.7.

If two or more class modifiers appear in a class declaration, then it is customary, though not required, that they appear in the order consistent with that shown above in the production for ClassModifier.

8.1.1.1 abstract Classes

Enum types (§8.9) must not be declared abstract; doing so will result in a compile-time error. It is a compile-time error for an enum type E to have an abstract method m as a member unless E has one or more enum constants, and all of E's enum constants have class bodies that provide concrete implementations of m. It is a compile-time error for the class body of an enum constant to declare an abstract method.

A class C has abstract methods if any of the following is true:

• C explicitly contains a declaration of an abstract method (§8.4.3).
• Any of C's superclasses has an abstract method and C neither declares nor inherits a method that implements (§8.4.8.1) it.
• A direct superinterface (§8.1.5) of C declares or inherits a method (which is therefore necessarily abstract) and C neither declares nor inherits a method that implements it.

In the example:

abstract class Point {
	int x = 1, y = 1;
	void move(int dx, int dy) {
		x += dx;
		y += dy;
		alert();
	}
	abstract void alert();
}
abstract class ColoredPoint extends Point {
	int color;
}

class SimplePoint extends Point {
	void alert() { }
}

A compile-time error occurs if an attempt is made to create an instance of an abstract class using a class instance creation expression (§15.9).

Thus, continuing the example just shown, the statement:

	Point p = new Point();

	Point p = new SimplePoint();

A subclass of an abstract class that is not itself abstract may be instantiated, resulting in the execution of a constructor for the abstract class and, therefore, the execution of the field initializers for instance variables of that class. Thus, in the example just given, instantiation of a SimplePoint causes the default constructor and field initializers for x and y of Point to be executed.

As an example, the declarations:

interface Colorable { void setColor(int color); }
abstract class Colored implements Colorable {
	abstract int setColor(int color);
}

A class type should be declared abstract only if the intent is that subclasses can be created to complete the implementation. If the intent is simply to prevent instantiation of a class, the proper way to express this is to declare a constructor (§8.8.10) of no arguments, make it private, never invoke it, and declare no other constructors. A class of this form usually contains class methods and variables. The class Math is an example of a class that cannot be instantiated; its declaration looks like this:

public final class Math {
	private Math() { }		// never instantiate this class
	. . . declarations of class variables and methods . . .

}

8.1.1.2 final Classes

Because a final class never has any subclasses, the methods of a final class are never overridden (§8.4.8.1).

8.1.1.3 strictfp Classes

Note also that all float or double expressions within all variable initializers, instance initializers, static initializers and constructors of the class will also be explicitly FP-strict.

8.1.2 Generic Classes and Type Parameters

Discussion

Vector<String> x = new Vector<String>(); 
Vector<Integer> y = new Vector<Integer>(); 
boolean b = x.getClass() == y.getClass();

TypeParameters ::= < TypeParameterList >

TypeParameterList    ::= TypeParameterList , TypeParameter

                      |  TypeParameter

Discussion

The scope of a class' type parameter is the entire declaration of the class including the type parameter section itself. Therefore, type parameters can appear as parts of their own bounds, or as bounds of other type parameters declared in the same section.

It is a compile-time error to refer to a type parameter of a class C anywhere in the declaration of a static member of C or the declaration of a static member of any type declaration nested within C. It is a compile-time error to refer to a type parameter of a class C within a static initializer of C or any class nested within C.

Discussion

interface ConvertibleTo<T> { 
   T convert(); 
} 
class ReprChange<T implements ConvertibleTo<S>, 
                 S implements ConvertibleTo<T>> { 
   T t; 
   void set(S s) { t = s.convert(); } 
   S get() { return t.convert(); } 
}

Parameterized class declarations can be nested inside other declarations.

Discussion

class Seq<T> { 
   T head; 
   Seq<T> tail; 
   Seq() { this(null, null); } 
   boolean isEmpty() { return tail == null; }
   Seq(T head, Seq<T> tail) { this.head = head; this.tail = tail; }
   class Zipper<S> { 
		Seq<Pair<T,S>> zip(Seq<S> that) { 
     			if (this.isEmpty() || that.isEmpty())
				return new Seq<Pair<T,S>>(); 
     			else 
				return new Seq<Pair<T,S>>( 
					new Pair<T,S>(this.head, that.head), 
					this.tail.zip(that.tail));
		}
   }
}
class Pair<T, S> {
	T fst; S Snd;
	Pair(T f, S s) {fst = f; snd = s;}
}

class Client {
	{
		Seq<String> strs = 
		new Seq<String>("a", new Seq<String>("b", 
					new Seq<String>()));
   		Seq<Number> nums = 
			new Seq<Number>(new Integer(1), 
					 new Seq<Number>(new Double(1.5), 
													new Seq<Number>()));
		Seq<String>.Zipper<Number> zipper = 
					strs.new Zipper<Number>();
		Seq<Pair<String,Number>> combined = zipper.zip(nums);
	}
}

8.1.3 Inner Classes and Enclosing Instances

To illustrate these rules, consider the example below:

class HasStatic{
	static int j = 100;
}
class Outer{
	class Inner extends HasStatic{
		static final int x = 3;			// ok - compile-time constant
		static int y = 4; 			// compile-time error, an inner class
	}
	static class NestedButNotInner{
		static int z = 5; 			// ok, not an inner class
	}
	interface NeverInner{}				// interfaces are never inner
}

A statement or expression occurs in a static context if and only if the innermost method, constructor, instance initializer, static initializer, field initializer, or explicit constructor invocation statement enclosing the statement or expression is a static method, a static initializer, the variable initializer of a static variable, or an explicit constructor invocation statement (§8.8.7).

An inner class C is a direct inner class of a class O if O is the immediately lexically enclosing class of C and the declaration of C does not occur in a static context. A class C is an inner class of class O if it is either a direct inner class of O or an inner class of an inner class of O.

A class O is the zeroth lexically enclosing class of itself. A class O is the nth lexically enclosing class of a class C if it is the immediately enclosing class of the n-1st lexically enclosing class of C.

An instance i of a direct inner class C of a class O is associated with an instance of O, known as the immediately enclosing instance of i. The immediately enclosing instance of an object, if any, is determined when the object is created (§15.9.2).

An object o is the zeroth lexically enclosing instance of itself. An object o is the nth lexically enclosing instance of an instance i if it is the immediately enclosing instance of the n-1st lexically enclosing instance of i.

When an inner class refers to an instance variable that is a member of a lexically enclosing class, the variable of the corresponding lexically enclosing instance is used. A blank final (§4.12.4) field of a lexically enclosing class may not be assigned within an inner class.

An instance of an inner class I whose declaration occurs in a static context has no lexically enclosing instances. However, if I is immediately declared within a static method or static initializer then I does have an enclosing block, which is the innermost block statement lexically enclosing the declaration of I.

Furthermore, for every superclass S of C which is itself a direct inner class of a class SO, there is an instance of SO associated with i, known as the immediately enclosing instance of i with respect to S. The immediately enclosing instance of an object with respect to its class' direct superclass, if any, is determined when the superclass constructor is invoked via an explicit constructor invocation statement.

Any local variable, formal method parameter or exception handler parameter used but not declared in an inner class must be declared final. Any local variable, used but not declared in an inner class must be definitely assigned (§16) before the body of the inner class.

Inner classes include local (§14.3), anonymous (§15.9.5) and non-static member classes (§8.5). Here are some examples:

class Outer {
	int i = 100;
	static void classMethod() {
		final int l = 200;
		class LocalInStaticContext{
			int k = i; // compile-time error
			int m = l; // ok
		}
	}
	
void foo() {
	class Local { // a local class
		int j = i;
		}
	}
}

The declaration of class LocalInStaticContext occurs in a static context-within the static method classMethod. Instance variables of class Outer are not available within the body of a static method. In particular, instance variables of Outer are not available inside the body of LocalInStaticContext. However, local variables from the surrounding method may be referred to without error (provided they are marked final).

Inner classes whose declarations do not occur in a static context may freely refer to the instance variables of their enclosing class. An instance variable is always defined with respect to an instance. In the case of instance variables of an enclosing class, the instance variable must be defined with respect to an enclosing instance of that class. So, for example, the class Local above has an enclosing instance of class Outer. As a further example:

class WithDeepNesting{
	boolean toBe;
	WithDeepNesting(boolean b) { toBe = b;}
	class Nested {
		boolean theQuestion;
		class DeeplyNested {
			DeeplyNested(){
				theQuestion = toBe || !toBe;
			}
		}
	}
}

8.1.4 Superclasses and Subclasses

Super:
	extends ClassType
	

ClassType:
	TypeDeclSpecifier TypeArgumentsopt

Given a (possibly generic) class declaration for C<F₁,...,F_n>, n0, CObject, the direct superclass of the class type (§4.5) C<F₁,...,F_n> is the type given in the extends clause of the declaration of C if an extends clause is present, or Object otherwise.

Let C<F₁,...,F_n>, n>0, be a generic class declaration. The direct superclass of the parameterized class type C<T₁,...,T_n> , where T_i, 1in, is a type, is D<U₁ theta , ..., U_k theta>, where D<U₁,...,U_k> is the direct superclass of C<F₁,...,F_n>, and theta is the substitution [F₁ := T₁, ..., F_n := T_n].

The ClassType must name an accessible (§6.6) class type, or a compile-time error occurs. If the specified ClassType names a class that is final (§8.1.1.2), then a compile-time error occurs; final classes are not allowed to have subclasses. It is a compile-time error if the ClassType names the class Enum or any invocation of it. If the TypeName is followed by any type arguments, it must be a correct invocation of the type declaration denoted by TypeName, and none of the type arguments may be wildcard type arguments, or a compile-time error occurs.

In the example:

class Point { int x, y; }
final class ColoredPoint extends Point { int color; }
class Colored3DPoint extends ColoredPoint { int z; } // error

• The class Point is a direct subclass of Object.
• The class Object is the direct superclass of the class Point.
• The class ColoredPoint is a direct subclass of class Point.
• The class Point is the direct superclass of class ColoredPoint.

The subclass relationship is the transitive closure of the direct subclass relationship. A class A is a subclass of class C if either of the following is true:

• A is the direct subclass of C.
• There exists a class B such that A is a subclass of B, and B is a subclass of C, applying this definition recursively.

In the example:

class Point { int x, y; }
class ColoredPoint extends Point { int color; }
final class Colored3dPoint extends ColoredPoint { int z; }

• The class Point is a superclass of class ColoredPoint.
• The class Point is a superclass of class Colored3dPoint.
• The class ColoredPoint is a subclass of class Point.
• The class ColoredPoint is a superclass of class Colored3dPoint.
• The class Colored3dPoint is a subclass of class ColoredPoint.
• The class Colored3dPoint is a subclass of class Point.

• C directly depends on T.
• C directly depends on an interface I that depends (§9.1.3) on T.
• C directly depends on a class D that depends on T (using this definition recursively).

For example:

class Point extends ColoredPoint { int x, y; }
class ColoredPoint extends Point { int color; }

If circularly declared classes are detected at run time, as classes are loaded (§12.2), then a ClassCircularityError is thrown.

8.1.5 Superinterfaces

Interfaces:
	implements InterfaceTypeList

InterfaceTypeList:
	InterfaceType
	InterfaceTypeList , InterfaceType
	

InterfaceType:
	TypeDeclSpecifier TypeArgumentsopt

Let C<F₁,...,F_n>, n>0, be a generic class declaration. The direct superinterfaces of the parameterized class type C<T₁,...,T_n>, where T_i, 1in, is a type, are all types I<U₁ theta , ..., U_k theta>, where I<U₁,...,U_k> is a direct superinterface of C<F₁,...,F_n>, and theta is the substitution [F₁ := T₁, ..., F_n := T_n].

Each InterfaceType must name an accessible (§6.6) interface type, or a compile-time error occurs. If the TypeName is followed by any type arguments, it must be a correct invocation of the type declaration denoted by TypeName, and none of the type arguments may be wildcard type arguments, or a compile-time error occurs.

A compile-time error occurs if the same interface is mentioned as a direct superinterface two or more times in a single implements clause names.

This is true even if the interface is named in different ways; for example, the code:

class Redundant implements java.lang.Cloneable, Cloneable {
	int x;
}

An interface type I is a superinterface of class type C if any of the following is true:

• I is a direct superinterface of C.
• C has some direct superinterface J for which I is a superinterface, using the definition of "superinterface of an interface" given in §9.1.3.
• I is a superinterface of the direct superclass of C.

In the example:

public interface Colorable {
	void setColor(int color);
	int getColor();
}
public enum Finish {MATTE, GLOSSY}
public interface Paintable extends Colorable {
	void setFinish(Finish finish);
	Finish getFinish();
}
class Point { int x, y; }
class ColoredPoint extends Point implements Colorable {
	int color;
	public void setColor(int color) { this.color = color; }
	public int getColor() { return color; }
}
class PaintedPoint extends ColoredPoint implements Paintable
{
	Finish finish;
	public void setFinish(Finish finish) {
		this.finish = finish;
	}
	public Finish getFinish() { return finish; }
}

• The interface Paintable is a superinterface of class PaintedPoint.
• The interface Colorable is a superinterface of class ColoredPoint and of class PaintedPoint.
• The interface Paintable is a subinterface of the interface Colorable, and Colorable is a superinterface of Paintable, as defined in §9.1.3.

Thus, the example:

interface Colorable {
	void setColor(int color);
	int getColor();
}
class Point { int x, y; };
class ColoredPoint extends Point implements Colorable {
	int color;
}

It is permitted for a single method declaration in a class to implement methods of more than one superinterface. For example, in the code:

interface Fish { int getNumberOfScales(); }
interface Piano { int getNumberOfScales(); }
class Tuna implements Fish, Piano {
	// You can tune a piano, but can you tuna fish?
	int getNumberOfScales() { return 91; }
}

On the other hand, in a situation such as this:

interface Fish { int getNumberOfScales(); }
interface StringBass { double getNumberOfScales(); }
class Bass implements Fish, StringBass {
	// This declaration cannot be correct, no matter what type is used.
	public ??? getNumberOfScales() { return 91; }
}

A class may not at the same time be a subtype of two interface types which are different invocations of the same generic interface (§9.1.2), or an invocation of a generic interface and a raw type naming that same generic interface.

Discussion

Here is an example of an illegal multiple inheritance of an interface:

class B implements I<Integer>
class C extends B implements I<String>

This requirement was introduced in order to support translation by type erasure (§4.6).

8.1.6 Class Body and Member Declarations

ClassBody:
	{ ClassBodyDeclarationsopt }

ClassBodyDeclarations:
	ClassBodyDeclaration
	ClassBodyDeclarations ClassBodyDeclaration

ClassBodyDeclaration:
	ClassMemberDeclaration
	InstanceInitializer
	StaticInitializer
	ConstructorDeclaration

ClassMemberDeclaration:
	FieldDeclaration
	MethodDeclaration
	ClassDeclaration						
	InterfaceDeclaration
	;		 

If C itself is a nested class, there may be definitions of the same kind (variable, method, or type) and name as m in enclosing scopes. (The scopes may be blocks, classes, or packages.) In all such cases, the member m declared or inherited in C shadows (§6.3.1) the other definitions of the same kind and name.

8.2 Class Members

• Members inherited from its direct superclass (§8.1.4), except in class Object, which has no direct superclass
• Members inherited from any direct superinterfaces (§8.1.5)
• Members declared in the body of the class (§8.1.6)

We use the phrase the type of a member to denote:

• For a field, its type.
• For a method, an ordered 3-tuple consisting of:
  • argument types: a list of the types of the arguments to the method member.
  • return type: the return type of the method member and the
  • throws clause: exception types declared in the throws clause of the method member.

The example:

class Point {
	int x, y;
	private Point() { reset(); }
	Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
	private void reset() { this.x = 0; this.y = 0; }
}
class ColoredPoint extends Point {
	int color;
	void clear() { reset(); }				// error
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		ColoredPoint c = new ColoredPoint(0, 0);	// error
		c.reset();					// error
	}
}

• An error occurs because ColoredPoint has no constructor declared with two integer parameters, as requested by the use in main. This illustrates the fact that ColoredPoint does not inherit the constructors of its superclass Point.
• Another error occurs because ColoredPoint declares no constructors, and therefore a default constructor for it is automatically created (§8.8.9), and this default constructor is equivalent to:

  	ColoredPoint() { super(); }
  

  which invokes the constructor, with no arguments, for the direct superclass of the class ColoredPoint. The error is that the constructor for Point that takes no arguments is private, and therefore is not accessible outside the class Point, even through a superclass constructor invocation (§8.8.7).

Two more errors occur because the method reset of class Point is private, and therefore is not inherited by class ColoredPoint. The method invocations in method clear of class ColoredPoint and in method main of class Test are therefore not correct.

8.2.1 Examples of Inheritance

8.2.1.1 Example: Inheritance with Default Access

package points;
public class Point {
	int x, y;
	public void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}

package points;
public class Point3d extends Point {
	int z;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz) {
		x += dx; y += dy; z += dz;
	}
}

import points.Point3d;
class Point4d extends Point3d {
	int w;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz, int dw) {
		x += dx; y += dy; z += dz; w += dw; // compile-time errors
	}
}

A better way to write the third compilation unit would be:

import points.Point3d;
class Point4d extends Point3d {
	int w;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz, int dw) {
		super.move(dx, dy, dz); w += dw;
	}
}

8.2.1.2 Inheritance with public and protected

package points;
public class Point {
	public int x, y;
	protected int useCount = 0;
	static protected int totalUseCount = 0;
	public void move(int dx, int dy) {
		x += dx; y += dy; useCount++; totalUseCount++;
	}
}

Therefore, this test program, in another package, can be compiled successfully:

class Test extends points.Point {
	public void moveBack(int dx, int dy) {
		x -= dx; y -= dy; useCount++; totalUseCount++;
	}
}

8.2.1.3 Inheritance with private

class Point {
	int x, y;
	void move(int dx, int dy) {
		x += dx; y += dy; totalMoves++;
	}
	private static int totalMoves;
	void printMoves() { System.out.println(totalMoves); }
}

class Point3d extends Point {
	int z;
	void move(int dx, int dy, int dz) {
		super.move(dx, dy); z += dz; totalMoves++;
	}
}

8.2.1.4 Accessing Members of Inaccessible Classes

Consider the compilation unit:

package points;
public class Point {
	public int x, y;
	public void move(int dx, int dy) {
		x += dx; y += dy;
	}
}

package morePoints;
class Point3d extends points.Point {
	public int z;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz) {
		super.move(dx, dy); z += dz;
	}
	public void move(int dx, int dy) {
		move(dx, dy, 0);
	}
}

public class OnePoint {
	public static points.Point getOne() { 
		return new Point3d(); 
	}
}

An invocation morePoints.OnePoint.getOne() in yet a third package would return a Point3d that can be used as a Point, even though the type Point3d is not available outside the package morePoints. The two argument version of method move could then be invoked for that object, which is permissible because method move of Point3d is public (as it must be, for any method that overrides a public method must itself be public, precisely so that situations such as this will work out correctly). The fields x and y of that object could also be accessed from such a third package.

While the field z of class Point3d is public, it is not possible to access this field from code outside the package morePoints, given only a reference to an instance of class Point3d in a variable p of type Point. This is because the expression p.z is not correct, as p has type Point and class Point has no field named z; also, the expression ((Point3d)p).z is not correct, because the class type Point3d cannot be referred to outside package morePoints.

The declaration of the field z as public is not useless, however. If there were to be, in package morePoints, a public subclass Point4d of the class Point3d:

package morePoints;
public class Point4d extends Point3d {
	public int w;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz, int dw) {
		super.move(dx, dy, dz); w += dw;
	}
}

then class Point4d would inherit the field z, which, being public, could then be accessed by code in packages other than morePoints, through variables and expressions of the public type Point4d.

8.3 Field Declarations

FieldDeclaration:
	FieldModifiersopt Type VariableDeclarators ;

VariableDeclarators:
	VariableDeclarator
	VariableDeclarators , VariableDeclarator

VariableDeclarator:
	VariableDeclaratorId
	VariableDeclaratorId = VariableInitializer

VariableDeclaratorId:
	Identifier
	VariableDeclaratorId [ ]

VariableInitializer:
	Expression
	ArrayInitializer

It is a compile-time error for the body of a class declaration to declare two fields with the same name. Methods, types, and fields may have the same name, since they are used in different contexts and are disambiguated by different lookup procedures (§6.5).

If the class declares a field with a certain name, then the declaration of that field is said to hide any and all accessible declarations of fields with the same name in superclasses, and superinterfaces of the class. The field declaration also shadows (§6.3.1) declarations of any accessible fields in enclosing classes or interfaces, and any local variables, formal method parameters, and exception handler parameters with the same name in any enclosing blocks.

If a field declaration hides the declaration of another field, the two fields need not have the same type.

A class inherits from its direct superclass and direct superinterfaces all the non-private fields of the superclass and superinterfaces that are both accessible to code in the class and not hidden by a declaration in the class.

Note that a private field of a superclass might be accessible to a subclass (for example, if both classes are members of the same class). Nevertheless, a private field is never inherited by a subclass.

It is possible for a class to inherit more than one field with the same name (§8.3.3.3). Such a situation does not in itself cause a compile-time error. However, any attempt within the body of the class to refer to any such field by its simple name will result in a compile-time error, because such a reference is ambiguous.

There might be several paths by which the same field declaration might be inherited from an interface. In such a situation, the field is considered to be inherited only once, and it may be referred to by its simple name without ambiguity.

A hidden field can be accessed by using a qualified name (if it is static) or by using a field access expression (§15.11) that contains the keyword super or a cast to a superclass type. See §15.11.2 for discussion and an example.

A value stored in a field of type float is always an element of the float value set (§4.2.3); similarly, a value stored in a field of type double is always an element of the double value set. It is not permitted for a field of type float to contain an element of the float-extended-exponent value set that is not also an element of the float value set, nor for a field of type double to contain an element of the double-extended-exponent value set that is not also an element of the double value set.

8.3.1 Field Modifiers

FieldModifiers:
	FieldModifier
	FieldModifiers FieldModifier

FieldModifier: one of
	Annotation public protected private
	static final transient volatile

If an annotation a on a field declaration corresponds to an annotation type T, and T has a (meta-)annotation m that corresponds to annotation.Target, then m must have an element whose value is annotation.ElementType.FIELD, or a compile-time error occurs. Annotation modifiers are described further in §9.7.

If two or more (distinct) field modifiers appear in a field declaration, it is customary, though not required, that they appear in the order consistent with that shown above in the production for FieldModifier.

8.3.1.1 static Fields

A field that is not declared static (sometimes called a non-static field) is called an instance variable. Whenever a new instance of a class is created, a new variable associated with that instance is created for every instance variable declared in that class or any of its superclasses. The example program:

class Point {
	int x, y, useCount;
	Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
	final static Point origin = new Point(0, 0);
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		Point p = new Point(1,1);
		Point q = new Point(2,2);
		p.x = 3; p.y = 3; p.useCount++; p.origin.useCount++;
		System.out.println("(" + q.x + "," + q.y + ")");
		System.out.println(q.useCount);
		System.out.println(q.origin == Point.origin);
		System.out.println(q.origin.useCount);
	}
}

(2,2)
0
true
1

q.origin==Point.origin

p.origin.useCount++;

8.3.1.2 final Fields

It is a compile-time error if a blank final (§4.12.4) class variable is not definitely assigned (§16.8) by a static initializer (§8.7) of the class in which it is declared.

A blank final instance variable must be definitely assigned (§16.9) at the end of every constructor (§8.8) of the class in which it is declared; otherwise a compile-time error occurs.

8.3.1.3 transient Fields

If an instance of the class Point:

class Point {
	int x, y;
	transient float rho, theta;
}

8.3.1.4 volatile Fields

The Java programming language provides a second mechanism, volatile fields, that is more convenient than locking for some purposes.

If, in the following example, one thread repeatedly calls the method one (but no more than Integer.MAX_VALUE times in all), and another thread repeatedly calls the method two:

class Test {
	static int i = 0, j = 0;
	static void one() { i++; j++; }
	static void two() {
		System.out.println("i=" + i + " j=" + j);
	}
}

One way to prevent this out-or-order behavior would be to declare methods one and two to be synchronized (§8.4.3.6):

class Test {
	static int i = 0, j = 0;
	static synchronized void one() { i++; j++; }
	static synchronized void two() {
		System.out.println("i=" + i + " j=" + j);
	}
}

Another approach would be to declare i and j to be volatile:

class Test {
	static volatile int i = 0, j = 0;
	static void one() { i++; j++; }
	static void two() {
		System.out.println("i=" + i + " j=" + j);
	}
}

This allows method one and method two to be executed concurrently, but guarantees that accesses to the shared values for i and j occur exactly as many times, and in exactly the same order, as they appear to occur during execution of the program text by each thread. Therefore, the shared value for j is never greater than that for i, because each update to i must be reflected in the shared value for i before the update to j occurs. It is possible, however, that any given invocation of method two might observe a value for j that is much greater than the value observed for i, because method one might be executed many times between the moment when method two fetches the value of i and the moment when method two fetches the value of j.

See §17 for more discussion and examples.

A compile-time error occurs if a final variable is also declared volatile.

8.3.2 Initialization of Fields

• If the declarator is for a class variable (that is, a static field), then the variable initializer is evaluated and the assignment performed exactly once, when the class is initialized (§12.4).
• If the declarator is for an instance variable (that is, a field that is not static), then the variable initializer is evaluated and the assignment performed each time an instance of the class is created (§12.5).

  The example:

class Point {
	int x = 1, y = 5;
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		Point p = new Point();
		System.out.println(p.x + ", " + p.y);
	}
}

1, 5

Variable initializers are also used in local variable declaration statements (§14.4), where the initializer is evaluated and the assignment performed each time the local variable declaration statement is executed.

It is a compile-time error if the evaluation of a variable initializer for a static field of a named class (or of an interface) can complete abruptly with a checked exception (§11.2).

It is compile-time error if an instance variable initializer of a named class can throw a checked exception unless that exception or one of its supertypes is explicitly declared in the throws clause of each constructor of its class and the class has at least one explicitly declared constructor. An instance variable initializer in an anonymous class (§15.9.5) can throw any exceptions.

8.3.2.1 Initializers for Class Variables

If the keyword this (§15.8.3) or the keyword super (§15.11.2, §15.12) occurs in an initialization expression for a class variable, then a compile-time error occurs.

One subtlety here is that, at run time, static variables that are final and that are initialized with compile-time constant values are initialized first. This also applies to such fields in interfaces (§9.3.1). These variables are "constants" that will never be observed to have their default initial values (§4.12.5), even by devious programs. See §12.4.2 and §13.4.9 for more discussion.

8.3.2.2 Initializers for Instance Variables

Thus the example:

class Test {
	float f = j;
	static int j = 1;
}

Initialization expressions for instance variables are permitted to refer to the current object this (§15.8.3) and to use the keyword super (§15.11.2, §15.12).

Use of instance variables whose declarations appear textually after the use is sometimes restricted, even though these instance variables are in scope. See §8.3.2.3 for the precise rules governing forward reference to instance variables.

8.3.2.3 Restrictions on the use of Fields during Initialization

• The usage occurs in an instance (respectively static) variable initializer of C or in an instance (respectively static) initializer of C.
• The usage is not on the left hand side of an assignment.
• The usage is via a simple name.
• C is the innermost class or interface enclosing the usage.

This means that a compile-time error results from the test program:

	class Test {
		int i = j;	// compile-time error: incorrect forward reference
		int j = 1;
	}

	class Test {
		Test() { k = 2; }
		int j = 1;
		int i = j;
		int k;
	}

These restrictions are designed to catch, at compile time, circular or otherwise malformed initializations. Thus, both:

class Z {
	static int i = j + 2; 
	static int j = 4;
}

class Z {
	static { i = j + 2; }
	static int i, j;
	static { j = 4; }
}

class Z {
	static int peek() { return j; }
	static int i = peek();
	static int j = 1;
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		System.out.println(Z.i);
	}
}

0

A more elaborate example is:

class UseBeforeDeclaration {
	static {
		x = 100; // ok - assignment
		int y = x + 1; // error - read before declaration
		int v = x = 3; // ok - x at left hand side of assignment
		int z = UseBeforeDeclaration.x * 2; 
	// ok - not accessed via simple name
		Object o = new Object(){ 
			void foo(){x++;} // ok - occurs in a different class
			{x++;} // ok - occurs in a different class
    		};
  }
	{
		j = 200; // ok - assignment
		j = j + 1; // error - right hand side reads before declaration
		int k = j = j + 1; 
		int n = j = 300; // ok - j at left hand side of assignment
		int h = j++; // error - read before declaration
		int l = this.j * 3; // ok - not accessed via simple name
		Object o = new Object(){ 
			void foo(){j++;} // ok - occurs in a different class
			{ j = j + 1;} // ok - occurs in a different class
		};
	}
	int w = x = 3; // ok - x at left hand side of assignment
	int p = x; // ok - instance initializers may access static fields
	static int u = (new Object(){int bar(){return x;}}).bar();
	// ok - occurs in a different class
	static int x;
	int m = j = 4; // ok - j at left hand side of assignment
	int o = (new Object(){int bar(){return j;}}).bar(); 
	// ok - occurs in a different class
	int j;
}

8.3.3 Examples of Field Declarations

8.3.3.1 Example: Hiding of Class Variables

class Point {
	static int x = 2;
}
class Test extends Point {
	static double x = 4.7;
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		new Test().printX();
	}
	void printX() {
		System.out.println(x + " " + super.x);
	}
}

4.7 2

class Point {
	static int x = 2;
}
class Test extends Point {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		new Test().printX();
	}
	void printX() {
		System.out.println(x + " " + super.x);
	}
}

2 2

8.3.3.2 Example: Hiding of Instance Variables

class Point {
	int x = 2;
}
class Test extends Point {
	double x = 4.7;
	void printBoth() {
		System.out.println(x + " " + super.x);
	}
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		Test sample = new Test();
		sample.printBoth();
		System.out.println(sample.x + " " + 
												((Point)sample).x);
	}
}

4.7 2
4.7 2

Code that uses a field access expression to access field x will access the field named x in the class indicated by the type of reference expression. Thus, the expression sample.x accesses a double value, the instance variable declared in class Test, because the type of the variable sample is Test, but the expression ((Point)sample).x accesses an int value, the instance variable declared in class Point, because of the cast to type Point.

If the declaration of x is deleted from class Test, as in the program:

class Point {
	static int x = 2;
}
class Test extends Point {
	void printBoth() {
		System.out.println(x + " " + super.x);
	}
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		Test sample = new Test();
		sample.printBoth();
		System.out.println(sample.x + " " +
												((Point)sample).x);
	}
}

2 2
2 2

8.3.3.3 Example: Multiply Inherited Fields

interface Frob { float v = 2.0f; }
class SuperTest { int v = 3; }
class Test extends SuperTest implements Frob {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		new Test().printV();
	}
	void printV() { System.out.println(v); }
}

The following variation uses the field access expression super.v to refer to the field named v declared in class SuperTest and uses the qualified name Frob.v to refer to the field named v declared in interface Frob:

interface Frob { float v = 2.0f; }
class SuperTest { int v = 3; }
class Test extends SuperTest implements Frob {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		new Test().printV();
	}
	void printV() {
		System.out.println((super.v + Frob.v)/2);
	}
}

2.5

Even if two distinct inherited fields have the same type, the same value, and are both final, any reference to either field by simple name is considered ambiguous and results in a compile-time error. In the example:

interface Color { int RED=0, GREEN=1, BLUE=2; }
interface TrafficLight { int RED=0, YELLOW=1, GREEN=2; }
class Test implements Color, TrafficLight {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		System.out.println(GREEN);	// compile-time error
		System.out.println(RED);	// compile-time error
	}
}

8.3.3.4 Example: Re-inheritance of Fields

public interface Colorable {
	int RED = 0xff0000, GREEN = 0x00ff00, BLUE = 0x0000ff;
}
public interface Paintable extends Colorable {
	int MATTE = 0, GLOSSY = 1;
}
class Point { int x, y; }
class ColoredPoint extends Point implements Colorable {
	. . .
}
class PaintedPoint extends ColoredPoint implements Paintable
{
	. . .       RED       . . .
}

8.4 Method Declarations

MethodDeclaration:
	MethodHeader MethodBody

MethodHeader:
	MethodModifiersopt TypeParametersopt ResultType MethodDeclarator 
Throwsopt
ResultType:
	Type
	void

MethodDeclarator:
	Identifier ( FormalParameterListopt )
	

The Identifier in a MethodDeclarator may be used in a name to refer to the method. A class can declare a method with the same name as the class or a field, member class or member interface of the class, but this is discouraged as a matter of syle.

For compatibility with older versions of the Java platform, a declaration form for a method that returns an array is allowed to place (some or all of) the empty bracket pairs that form the declaration of the array type after the parameter list. This is supported by the obsolescent production:

MethodDeclarator:
	MethodDeclarator [ ]

It is a compile-time error for the body of a class to declare as members two methods with override-equivalent signatures (§8.4.2) (name, number of parameters, and types of any parameters). Methods and fields may have the same name, since they are used in different contexts and are disambiguated by different lookup procedures (§6.5).

8.4.1 Formal Parameters

FormalParameterList:
	LastFormalParameter
	FormalParameters , LastFormalParameter

FormalParameters:
	FormalParameter
	FormalParameters , FormalParameter

FormalParameter:
	VariableModifiers Type VariableDeclaratorId

VariableModifiers:
	VariableModifier
	VariableModifiers VariableModifier

VariableModifier: one of
	final Annotation

LastFormalParameter:
	VariableModifiers Type...opt VariableDeclaratorId
	FormalParameter
	

VariableDeclaratorId:
	Identifier
	VariableDeclaratorId [ ]

If two formal parameters of the same method or constructor are declared to have the same name (that is, their declarations mention the same Identifier), then a compile-time error occurs.

If an annotation a on a formal parameter corresponds to an annotation type T, and T has a (meta-)annotation m that corresponds to annotation.Target, then m must have an element whose value is annotation.ElementType.PARAMETER, or a compile-time error occurs. Annotation modifiers are described further in §9.7.

It is a compile-time error if a method or constructor parameter that is declared final is assigned to within the body of the method or constructor.

When the method or constructor is invoked (§15.12), the values of the actual argument expressions initialize newly created parameter variables, each of the declared Type, before execution of the body of the method or constructor. The Identifier that appears in the DeclaratorId may be used as a simple name in the body of the method or constructor to refer to the formal parameter.

If the last formal parameter is a variable arity parameter of type T, it is considered to define a formal parameter of type T[]. The method is then a variable arity method. Otherwise, it is a fixed arity method. Invocations of a variable arity method may contain more actual argument expressions than formal parameters. All the actual argument expressions that do not correspond to the formal parameters preceding the variable arity parameter will be evaluated and the results stored into an array that will be passed to the method invocation (§15.12.4.2).

The scope of a parameter of a method (§8.4.1) or constructor (§8.8.1) is the entire body of the method or constructor.

These parameter names may not be redeclared as local variables of the method, or as exception parameters of catch clauses in a try statement of the method or constructor. However, a parameter of a method or constructor may be shadowed anywhere inside a class declaration nested within that method or constructor. Such a nested class declaration could declare either a local class (§14.3) or an anonymous class (§15.9).

Formal parameters are referred to only using simple names, never by using qualified names (§6.6).

A method or constructor parameter of type float always contains an element of the float value set (§4.2.3); similarly, a method or constructor parameter of type double always contains an element of the double value set. It is not permitted for a method or constructor parameter of type float to contain an element of the float-extended-exponent value set that is not also an element of the float value set, nor for a method parameter of type double to contain an element of the double-extended-exponent value set that is not also an element of the double value set.

Where an actual argument expression corresponding to a parameter variable is not FP-strict (§15.4), evaluation of that actual argument expression is permitted to use intermediate values drawn from the appropriate extended-exponent value sets. Prior to being stored in the parameter variable the result of such an expression is mapped to the nearest value in the corresponding standard value set by method invocation conversion (§5.3).

8.4.2 Method Signature

Two methods have the same signature if they have the same name and argument types.

Two method or constructor declarations M and N have the same argument types if all of the following conditions hold:

• They have the same number of formal parameters (possibly zero)
• They have the same number of type parameters (possibly zero)
• Let <A₁,...,A_n> be the formal type parameters of M and let <B₁,...,B_n> be the formal type parameters of N. After renaming each occurrence of a B_i in N's type to A_i the bounds of corresponding type variables and the argument types of M and N are the same.

• m2 has the same signature as m1, or
• the signature of m1 is the same as the erasure of the signature of m2.

Discussion

Specifically, it allows a method whose signature does not use generic types to override any generified version of that method. This is important so that library designers may freely generify methods independently of clients that define subclasses or subinterfaces of the library.

Consider the example:

class CollectionConverter {
    List toList(Collection c) {...}
}
class Overrider extends CollectionConverter{
    List toList(Collection c) {...}
}

class CollectionConverter {
	<T> List<T> toList(Collection<T> c) {...}
}

Two method signatures m1 and m2 are override-equivalent iff either m1 is a subsignature of m2 or m2 is a subsignature of m1.

The example:

class Point implements Move {
	int x, y;
	abstract void move(int dx, int dy);
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}

8.4.3 Method Modifiers

MethodModifiers:
	MethodModifier
	MethodModifiers MethodModifier

MethodModifier: one of
	Annotation public protected private abstract static
	final synchronized native strictfp

If an annotation a on a method declaration corresponds to an annotation type T, and T has a (meta-)annotation m that corresponds to annotation.Target, then m must have an element whose value is annotation.ElementType.METHOD, or a compile-time error occurs. Annotations are discussed further in §9.7.

If two or more method modifiers appear in a method declaration, it is customary, though not required, that they appear in the order consistent with that shown above in the production for MethodModifier.

8.4.3.1 abstract Methods

It is a compile-time error for a private method to be declared abstract.

It would be impossible for a subclass to implement a private abstract method, because private methods are not inherited by subclasses; therefore such a method could never be used.

It is a compile-time error for a final method to be declared abstract.

An abstract class can override an abstract method by providing another abstract method declaration.

This can provide a place to put a documentation comment, to refine the return type, or to declare that the set of checked exceptions (§11.2) that can be thrown by that method, when it is implemented by its subclasses, is to be more limited. For example, consider this code:

class BufferEmpty extends Exception {
	BufferEmpty() { super(); }
	BufferEmpty(String s) { super(s); }
}
class BufferError extends Exception {
	BufferError() { super(); }
	BufferError(String s) { super(s); }
}
public interface Buffer {
	char get() throws BufferEmpty, BufferError;
}
public abstract class InfiniteBuffer implements Buffer {
	public abstract char get() throws BufferError;
}

The overriding declaration of method get in class InfiniteBuffer states that method get in any subclass of InfiniteBuffer never throws a BufferEmpty exception, putatively because it generates the data in the buffer, and thus can never run out of data.

For example, we can declare an abstract class Point that requires its subclasses to implement toString if they are to be complete, instantiable classes:

abstract class Point {
	int x, y;
	public abstract String toString();
}

class ColoredPoint extends Point {
	int color;
	public String toString() {
		return super.toString() + ": color " + color; // error
	}
}

abstract class Point {
	int x, y;
	public abstract String toString();
	protected String objString() { return super.toString(); }
}
class ColoredPoint extends Point {
	int color;
	public String toString() {
		return objString() + ": color " + color;														// correct
	}
}

8.4.3.2 static Methods

A method that is not declared static is called an instance method, and sometimes called a non-static method. An instance method is always invoked with respect to an object, which becomes the current object to which the keywords this and super refer during execution of the method body.

8.4.3.3 final Methods

A private method and all methods declared immediately within a final class (§8.1.1.2) behave as if they are final, since it is impossible to override them.

It is a compile-time error for a final method to be declared abstract.

At run time, a machine-code generator or optimizer can "inline" the body of a final method, replacing an invocation of the method with the code in its body. The inlining process must preserve the semantics of the method invocation. In particular, if the target of an instance method invocation is null, then a NullPointerException must be thrown even if the method is inlined. The compiler must ensure that the exception will be thrown at the correct point, so that the actual arguments to the method will be seen to have been evaluated in the correct order prior to the method invocation.

Consider the example:

final class Point {
	int x, y;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		Point[] p = new Point[100];
		for (int i = 0; i < p.length; i++) {
			p[i] = new Point();
			p[i].move(i, p.length-1-i);
		}
	}
}

		for (int i = 0; i < p.length; i++) {
			p[i] = new Point();
			Point pi = p[i];
			int j = p.length-1-i;
			pi.x += i;
			pi.y += j;
		}

Such inlining cannot be done at compile time unless it can be guaranteed that Test and Point will always be recompiled together, so that whenever Point-and specifically its move method-changes, the code for Test.main will also be updated.

8.4.3.4 native Methods

A compile-time error occurs if a native method is declared abstract.

For example, the class RandomAccessFile of the package java.io might declare the following native methods:

package java.io;
public class RandomAccessFile
	implements DataOutput, DataInput
{	. . .
	public native void open(String name, boolean writeable)
		throws IOException;
	public native int readBytes(byte[] b, int off, int len)
		throws IOException;
	public native void writeBytes(byte[] b, int off, int len)
		throws IOException;
	public native long getFilePointer() throws IOException;
	public native void seek(long pos) throws IOException;
	public native long length() throws IOException;
	public native void close() throws IOException;

}

8.4.3.5 strictfp Methods

8.4.3.6 synchronized Methods

These are the same locks that can be used by the synchronized statement (§14.19); thus, the code:

class Test {
	int count;
	synchronized void bump() { count++; }
	static int classCount;
	static synchronized void classBump() {
		classCount++;
	}
}

class BumpTest {
	int count;
	void bump() {
		synchronized (this) {
			count++;
		}
	}
	static int classCount;
	static void classBump() {
		try {
			synchronized (Class.forName("BumpTest")) {
				classCount++;
			}
		} catch (ClassNotFoundException e) {
				...
		}
	}
}

public class Box {
	private Object boxContents;
	public synchronized Object get() {
		Object contents = boxContents;
		boxContents = null;
		return contents;
	}
	public synchronized boolean put(Object contents) {
		if (boxContents != null)
			return false;
		boxContents = contents;
		return true;
	}
}

If put and get were not synchronized, and two threads were executing methods for the same instance of Box at the same time, then the code could misbehave. It might, for example, lose track of an object because two invocations to put occurred at the same time.

8.4.4 Generic Methods

The scope of a method's type parameter is the entire declaration of the method, including the type parameter section itself. Therefore, type parameters can appear as parts of their own bounds, or as bounds of other type parameters declared in the same section.

Type parameters of generic methods need not be provided explicitly when a generic method is invoked. Instead, they are almost always inferred as specified in §15.12.2.7

8.4.5 Method Return Type

A method declaration d₁ with return type R₁ is return-type-substitutable for another method d₂ with return type R₂, if and only if the following conditions hold:

• If R₁ is a primitive type, then R₂ is identical to R₁.
• If R₁ is a reference type then:
  • R₁ is either a subtype of R₂ or R₁ can be converted to a subtype of R₂ by unchecked conversion (§5.1.9), or
  • R₁ = | R₂ |.
• If R₁ is void then R₂ is void.

Discussion

Note that this definition supports covariant returns - that is, the specialization of the return type to a subtype (but only for reference types).

Also note that unchecked conversions are allowed as well. This is unsound, and requires an unchecked warning whenever it is used; it is a special allowance is made to allow smooth migration from non-generic to generic code.

8.4.6 Method Throws

Throws:
	throws ExceptionTypeList

ExceptionTypeList:
	ExceptionType
	ExceptionTypeList , ExceptionType

ExceptionType:
	ClassType
	TypeVariable
	

For each checked exception that can result from execution of the body of a method or constructor, a compile-time error occurs unless that exception type or a supertype of that exception type is mentioned in a throws clause in the declaration of the method or constructor.

The requirement to declare checked exceptions allows the compiler to ensure that code for handling such error conditions has been included. Methods or constructors that fail to handle exceptional conditions thrown as checked exceptions will normally result in a compile-time error because of the lack of a proper exception type in a throws clause. The Java programming language thus encourages a programming style where rare and otherwise truly exceptional conditions are documented in this way.

• Exceptions that are represented by the subclasses of class Error, for example OutOfMemoryError, are thrown due to a failure in or of the virtual machine. Many of these are the result of linkage failures and can occur at unpredictable points in the execution of a program. Sophisticated programs may yet wish to catch and attempt to recover from some of these conditions.
• The exceptions that are represented by the subclasses of the class RuntimeException, for example NullPointerException, result from run--time integrity checks and are thrown either directly from the program or in library routines. It is beyond the scope of the Java programming language, and perhaps beyond the state of the art, to include sufficient information in the program to reduce to a manageable number the places where these can be proven not to occur.

More precisely, suppose that B is a class or interface, and A is a superclass or superinterface of B, and a method declaration n in B overrides or hides a method declaration m in A. If n has a throws clause that mentions any checked exception types, then m must have a throws clause, and for every checked exception type listed in the throws clause of n, that same exception class or one of its supertypes must occur in the erasure of the throws clause of m; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.

If the unerased throws clause of m does not contain a supertype of each exception type in the throws clause of n, an unchecked warning must be issued.

Discussion

Type variables are allowed in throws lists even though they are not allowed in catch clauses.

interface PrivilegedExceptionAction<E extends Exception> { 
  void run() throws E;
} 
class AccessController {
  public static <E extends Exception> 
  Object doPrivileged(PrivilegedExceptionAction<E> action) throws E 
  { ... }
}
class Test {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    try { 
      AccessController.doPrivileged(
        new PrivilegedExceptionAction<FileNotFoundException>() { 
          public void run() throws FileNotFoundException 
          {... delete a file  ...} 
        }); 
    } catch (FileNotFoundException f) {...} // do something 
  }
}

8.4.7 Method Body

MethodBody:
	Block 
	;

If an implementation is to be provided for a method declared void, but the implementation requires no executable code, the method body should be written as a block that contains no statements: "{ }".

If a method is declared to have a return type, then every return statement (§14.17) in its body must have an Expression. A compile-time error occurs if the body of the method can complete normally (§14.1).

In other words, a method with a return type must return only by using a return statement that provides a value return; it is not allowed to "drop off the end of its body."

Note that it is possible for a method to have a declared return type and yet contain no return statements. Here is one example:

class DizzyDean {
	int pitch() { throw new RuntimeException("90 mph?!"); }
}

8.4.8 Inheritance, Overriding, and Hiding

8.4.8.1 Overriding (by Instance Methods)

1. C is a subclass of A.
2. The signature of m1 is a subsignature (§8.4.2) of the signature of m2.
3. Either
   • m2 is public, protected or declared with default access in the same package as C, or
   • m1 overrides a method m3, m3 distinct from m1, m3 distinct from m2, such that m3 overrides m2.

Discussion

The signature of an overriding method may differ from the overridden one if a formal parameter in one of the methods has raw type, while the corresponding parameter in the other has a parameterized type.

The rules allow the signature of the overriding method to differ from the overridden one, to accommodate migration of pre-existing code to take advantage of genericity. See section §8.4.2 for further analysis.

A compile-time error occurs if an instance method overrides a static method.

In this respect, overriding of methods differs from hiding of fields (§8.3), for it is permissible for an instance variable to hide a static variable.

An overridden method can be accessed by using a method invocation expression (§15.12) that contains the keyword super. Note that a qualified name or a cast to a superclass type is not effective in attempting to access an overridden method; in this respect, overriding of methods differs from hiding of fields. See §15.12.4.9 for discussion and examples of this point.

8.4.8.2 Hiding (by Class Methods)

In this respect, hiding of methods differs from hiding of fields (§8.3), for it is permissible for a static variable to hide an instance variable. Hiding is also distinct from shadowing (§6.3.1) and obscuring (§6.3.2).

A hidden method can be accessed by using a qualified name or by using a method invocation expression (§15.12) that contains the keyword super or a cast to a superclass type. In this respect, hiding of methods is similar to hiding of fields.

8.4.8.3 Requirements in Overriding and Hiding

A method declaration must not have a throws clause that conflicts (§8.4.6) with that of any method that it overrides or hides; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.

Discussion

The rules above allow for covariant return types - refining the return type of a method when overriding it.

For example, the following declarations are legal although they were illegal in prior versions of the Java programming language:

class C implements Cloneable { 
   C copy() { return (C)clone(); } 
}
class D extends C implements Cloneable { 
   D copy() { return (D)clone(); } 
}

Discussion

Consider

class StringSorter {
// takes a collection of strings and converts it to a sortedlist
    List toList(Collection c) {...} 
}

class Overrider extends StringSorter{
    List toList(Collection c) {...}
}

class StringSorter {
// takes a collection of strings and converts it to a list
    List<String> toList(Collection<String> c) {...}
}

In these respects, overriding of methods differs from hiding of fields (§8.3), for it is permissible for a field to hide a field of another type.

• m₁ and m₂ have the same name.
• m₂ is accessible from T.
• The signature of m₁ is not a subsignature (§8.4.2) of the signature of m₂.
• m₁ or some method m₁ overrides (directly or indirectly) has the same erasure as m₂ or some method m₂ overrides (directly or indirectly).

Discussion

These restrictions are necessary because generics are implemented via erasure. The rule above implies that methods declared in the same class with the same name must have different erasures. It also implies that a type declaration cannot implement or extend two distinct invocations of the same generic interface. Here are some further examples.

A class cannot have two member methods with the same name and type erasure.

class C<T> { T id (T x) {...} }
class D extends C<String> {
   Object id(Object x) {...}
}

• The two methods have the same name, id
• C<String>.id(String) is accessible to D
• The signature of D.id(Object) is not a subsignature of that of C<String>.id(String)
• The two methods have the same erasure

Discussion

Two different methods of a class may not override methods with the same erasure.

class C<T> { T id (T x) {...} }
interface I<T> { Tid(T x); }
class D extends C<String> implements I<Integer> {
   String id(String x) {...}
   Integer id(Integer x) {...}
}

• the two methods have the same name, id
• the two methods have different signatures.
• D.id(Integer) is accessible to D
• D.id(String) overrides C<String>.id(String) and D.id(Integer) overrides I.id(Integer) yet the two overridden methods have the same erasure

• If the overridden or hidden method is public, then the overriding or hiding method must be public; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.
• If the overridden or hidden method is protected, then the overriding or hiding method must be protected or public; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.
• If the overridden or hidden method has default (package) access, then the overriding or hiding method must not be private; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.

Note that a private method cannot be hidden or overridden in the technical sense of those terms. This means that a subclass can declare a method with the same signature as a private method in one of its superclasses, and there is no requirement that the return type or throws clause of such a method bear any relationship to those of the private method in the superclass.

8.4.8.4 Inheriting Methods with Override-Equivalent Signatures

It is a compile time error if a class C inherits a concrete method whose signatures is a subsignature of another concrete method inherited by C.

Discussion

This can happen, if a superclass is parametric, and it has two methods that were distinct in the generic declaration, but have the same signature in the particular invocation used.

Otherwise, there are two possible cases:

• If one of the inherited methods is not abstract, then there are two subcases:
  • If the method that is not abstract is static, a compile-time error occurs.
  • Otherwise, the method that is not abstract is considered to override, and therefore to implement, all the other methods on behalf of the class that inherits it. If the signature of the non-abstract method is not a subsignature of each of the other inherited methods an unchecked warning must be issued (unless suppressed (§9.6.1.5)). A compile-time error also occurs if the return type of the non-abstract method is not return type substitutable (§8.4.5) for each of the other inherited methods. If the return type of the non-abstract method is not a subtype of the return type of any of the other inherited methods, an unchecked warning must be issued. Moreover, a compile-time error occurs if the inherited method that is not abstract has a throws clause that conflicts (§8.4.6) with that of any other of the inherited methods.
• If all the inherited methods are abstract, then the class is necessarily an abstract class and is considered to inherit all the abstract methods. A compile-time error occurs if, for any two such inherited methods, one of the methods is not return type substitutable for the other (The throws clauses do not cause errors in this case.)

8.4.9 Overloading

Methods are overridden on a signature-by-signature basis.

If, for example, a class declares two public methods with the same name, and a subclass overrides one of them, the subclass still inherits the other method.

When a method is invoked (§15.12), the number of actual arguments (and any explicit type arguments) and the compile-time types of the arguments are used, at compile time, to determine the signature of the method that will be invoked (§15.12.2). If the method that is to be invoked is an instance method, the actual method to be invoked will be determined at run time, using dynamic method lookup (§15.12.4).

8.4.10 Examples of Method Declarations

8.4.10.1 Example: Overriding

class Point {
	int x = 0, y = 0;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}
class SlowPoint extends Point {
	int xLimit, yLimit;
	void move(int dx, int dy) {
		super.move(limit(dx, xLimit), limit(dy, yLimit));
	}
	static int limit(int d, int limit) {
		return d > limit ? limit : d < -limit ? -limit : d;
	}
}

8.4.10.2 Example: Overloading, Overriding, and Hiding

class Point {
	int x = 0, y = 0;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
	int color;
}
class RealPoint extends Point {
	float x = 0.0f, y = 0.0f;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { move((float)dx, (float)dy); }
	void move(float dx, float dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}

In this example, the members of the class RealPoint include the instance variable color inherited from the class Point, the float instance variables x and y declared in RealPoint, and the two move methods declared in RealPoint.

Which of these overloaded move methods of class RealPoint will be chosen for any particular method invocation will be determined at compile time by the overloading resolution procedure described in §15.12.

8.4.10.3 Example: Incorrect Overriding

class Point {
	int x = 0, y = 0, color;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
	int getX() { return x; }
	int getY() { return y; }
}

class RealPoint extends Point {
	float x = 0.0f, y = 0.0f;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { move((float)dx, (float)dy); }
	void move(float dx, float dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
	float getX() { return x; }
	float getY() { return y; }
}

8.4.10.4 Example: Overriding versus Hiding

class Point {
	int x = 0, y = 0;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
	int getX() { return x; }
	int getY() { return y; }
	int color;
}
class RealPoint extends Point {
	float x = 0.0f, y = 0.0f;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { move((float)dx, (float)dy); }
	void move(float dx, float dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
	int getX() { return (int)Math.floor(x); }
	int getY() { return (int)Math.floor(y); }
}

Consider, then, this test program:

class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		RealPoint rp = new RealPoint();
		Point p = rp;
		rp.move(1.71828f, 4.14159f);
		p.move(1, -1);
		show(p.x, p.y);
		show(rp.x, rp.y);
		show(p.getX(), p.getY());
		show(rp.getX(), rp.getY());
	}
	static void show(int x, int y) {
		System.out.println("(" + x + ", " + y + ")");
	}
	static void show(float x, float y) {
		System.out.println("(" + x + ", " + y + ")");
	}
}

(0, 0)
(2.7182798, 3.14159)
(2, 3)
(2, 3)

The first line of output illustrates the fact that an instance of RealPoint actually contains the two integer fields declared in class Point; it is just that their names are hidden from code that occurs within the declaration of class RealPoint (and those of any subclasses it might have). When a reference to an instance of class RealPoint in a variable of type Point is used to access the field x, the integer field x declared in class Point is accessed. The fact that its value is zero indicates that the method invocation p.move(1, -1) did not invoke the method move of class Point; instead, it invoked the overriding method move of class RealPoint.

The second line of output shows that the field access rp.x refers to the field x declared in class RealPoint. This field is of type float, and this second line of output accordingly displays floating-point values. Incidentally, this also illustrates the fact that the method name show is overloaded; the types of the arguments in the method invocation dictate which of the two definitions will be invoked.

The last two lines of output show that the method invocations p.getX() and rp.getX() each invoke the getX method declared in class RealPoint. Indeed, there is no way to invoke the getX method of class Point for an instance of class RealPoint from outside the body of RealPoint, no matter what the type of the variable we may use to hold the reference to the object. Thus, we see that fields and methods behave differently: hiding is different from overriding.

8.4.10.5 Example: Invocation of Hidden Class Methods

class Super {
	static String greeting() { return "Goodnight"; }
	String name() { return "Richard"; }
}
class Sub extends Super {
	static String greeting() { return "Hello"; }
	String name() { return "Dick"; }
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		Super s = new Sub();
		System.out.println(s.greeting() + ", " + s.name());
	}
}

Goodnight, Dick

8.4.10.6 Large Example of Overriding

import java.io.OutputStream;
import java.io.IOException;
class BufferOutput {
	private OutputStream o;
	BufferOutput(OutputStream o) { this.o = o; }
	protected byte[] buf = new byte[512];
	protected int pos = 0;
	public void putchar(char c) throws IOException {
		if (pos == buf.length)
			flush();
		buf[pos++] = (byte)c;
	}
	public void putstr(String s) throws IOException {
		for (int i = 0; i < s.length(); i++)
			putchar(s.charAt(i));
	}
	public void flush() throws IOException {
		o.write(buf, 0, pos);
		pos = 0;
	}
}
class LineBufferOutput extends BufferOutput {
	LineBufferOutput(OutputStream o) { super(o); }
	public void putchar(char c) throws IOException {
		super.putchar(c);
		if (c == '\n')
			flush();
	}
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args)
		throws IOException
	{
		LineBufferOutput lbo =
			new LineBufferOutput(System.out);
		lbo.putstr("lbo\nlbo");
		System.out.print("print\n");
		lbo.putstr("\n");
	}
}

lbo
print
lbo

The class BufferOutput implements a very simple buffered version of an OutputStream, flushing the output when the buffer is full or flush is invoked. The subclass LineBufferOutput declares only a constructor and a single method putchar, which overrides the method putchar of BufferOutput. It inherits the methods putstr and flush from class BufferOutput.

In the putchar method of a LineBufferOutput object, if the character argument is a newline, then it invokes the flush method. The critical point about overriding in this example is that the method putstr, which is declared in class BufferOutput, invokes the putchar method defined by the current object this, which is not necessarily the putchar method declared in class BufferOutput.

Thus, when putstr is invoked in main using the LineBufferOutput object lbo, the invocation of putchar in the body of the putstr method is an invocation of the putchar of the object lbo, the overriding declaration of putchar that checks for a newline. This allows a subclass of BufferOutput to change the behavior of the putstr method without redefining it.

Documentation for a class such as BufferOutput, which is designed to be extended, should clearly indicate what is the contract between the class and its subclasses, and should clearly indicate that subclasses may override the putchar method in this way. The implementor of the BufferOutput class would not, therefore, want to change the implementation of putstr in a future implementation of BufferOutput not to use the method putchar, because this would break the preexisting contract with subclasses. See the further discussion of binary compatibility in §13, especially §13.2.

8.4.10.7 Example: Incorrect Overriding because of Throws

class BadPointException extends Exception {
	BadPointException() { super(); }
	BadPointException(String s) { super(s); }
}
class Point {
	int x, y;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}
class CheckedPoint extends Point {
	void move(int dx, int dy) throws BadPointException {
		if ((x + dx) < 0 || (y + dy) < 0)
			throw new BadPointException();
		x += dx; y += dy;
	}
}

Removing the throws clause does not help:

class CheckedPoint extends Point {
	void move(int dx, int dy) {
		if ((x + dx) < 0 || (y + dy) < 0)
			throw new BadPointException();
		x += dx; y += dy;
	}
}

A different compile-time error now occurs, because the body of the method move cannot throw a checked exception, namely BadPointException, that does not appear in the throws clause for move.

8.5 Member Type Declarations

If the class declares a member type with a certain name, then the declaration of that type is said to hide any and all accessible declarations of member types with the same name in superclasses and superinterfaces of the class.

Within a class C, a declaration d of a member type named n shadows the declarations of any other types named n that are in scope at the point where d occurs.

If a member class or interface declared with simple name C is directly enclosed within the declaration of a class with fully qualified name N, then the member class or interface has the fully qualified name N.C. A class inherits from its direct superclass and direct superinterfaces all the non-private member types of the superclass and superinterfaces that are both accessible to code in the class and not hidden by a declaration in the class.

A class may inherit two or more type declarations with the same name, either from two interfaces or from its superclass and an interface. A compile-time error occurs on any attempt to refer to any ambiguously inherited class or interface by its simple name

If the same type declaration is inherited from an interface by multiple paths, the class or interface is considered to be inherited only once. It may be referred to by its simple name without ambiguity.

8.5.1 Modifiers

Member type declarations may have annotation modifers just like any type or member declaration.

8.5.2 Static Member Type Declarations

It is a compile-time error if a static class contains a usage of a non-static member of an enclosing class.

Member interfaces are always implicitly static. It is permitted but not required for the declaration of a member interface to explicitly list the static modifier.

8.6 Instance Initializers

InstanceInitializer:
	Block

The rules above distinguish between instance initializers in named and anonymous classes. This distinction is deliberate. A given anonymous class is only instantiated at a single point in a program. It is therefore possible to directly propagate information about what exceptions might be raised by an anonymous class' instance initializer to the surrounding expression. Named classes, on the other hand, can be instantiated in many places. Therefore the only way to propagate information about what exceptions might be raised by an instance initializer of a named class is through the throws clauses of its constructors. It follows that a more liberal rule can be used in the case of anonymous classes. Similar comments apply to instance variable initializers.

Use of instance variables whose declarations appear textually after the use is sometimes restricted, even though these instance variables are in scope. See §8.3.2.3 for the precise rules governing forward reference to instance variables.

Instance initializers are permitted to refer to the current object this (§15.8.3), to any type variables (§4.4) in scope and to use the keyword super (§15.11.2, §15.12).

8.7 Static Initializers

StaticInitializer:
	static Block

The static initializers and class variable initializers are executed in textual order.

Use of class variables whose declarations appear textually after the use is sometimes restricted, even though these class variables are in scope. See §8.3.2.3 for the precise rules governing forward reference to class variables.

If a return statement (§14.17) appears anywhere within a static initializer, then a compile-time error occurs.

If the keyword this (§15.8.3) or any type variable (§4.4) defined outside the initializer or the keyword super (§15.11, §15.12) appears anywhere within a static initializer, then a compile-time error occurs.

8.8 Constructor Declarations

ConstructorDeclaration:
	ConstructorModifiersopt ConstructorDeclarator
		Throwsopt ConstructorBody

ConstructorDeclarator:
	TypeParametersopt SimpleTypeName ( FormalParameterListopt )
	

Here is a simple example:

class Point {
	int x, y;
	Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
}

Access to constructors is governed by access modifiers (§6.6).

This is useful, for example, in preventing instantiation by declaring an inaccessible constructor (§8.8.10).

8.8.1 Formal Parameters and Formal Type Parameter

8.8.2 Constructor Signature

8.8.3 Constructor Modifiers

ConstructorModifiers:
	ConstructorModifier
	ConstructorModifiers ConstructorModifier

ConstructorModifier: one of
	 Annotation public protected private

If no access modifier is specified for the constructor of a normal class, the constructor has default access. If no access modifier is specified for the constructor of an enum type, the constructor is private. It is a compile-time error if the constructor of an enum type (§8.9) is declared public or protected.

If an annotation a on a constructor corresponds to an annotation type T, and T has a (meta-)annotation m that corresponds to annotation.Target, then m must have an element whose value is annotation.ElementType.CONSTRUCTOR, or a compile-time error occurs. Annotations are further discussed in §9.7.

Unlike methods, a constructor cannot be abstract, static, final, native, strictfp, or synchronized. A constructor is not inherited, so there is no need to declare it final and an abstract constructor could never be implemented. A constructor is always invoked with respect to an object, so it makes no sense for a constructor to be static. There is no practical need for a constructor to be synchronized, because it would lock the object under construction, which is normally not made available to other threads until all constructors for the object have completed their work. The lack of native constructors is an arbitrary language design choice that makes it easy for an implementation of the Java virtual machine to verify that superclass constructors are always properly invoked during object creation.

Note that a ConstructorModifier cannot be declared strictfp. This difference in the definitions for ConstructorModifier and MethodModifier (§8.4.3) is an intentional language design choice; it effectively ensures that a constructor is FP-strict (§15.4) if and only if its class is FP-strict.

8.8.4 Generic Constructors

The scope of a constructor's type parameter is the entire declaration of the constructor, including the type parameter section itself. Therefore, type parameters can appear as parts of their own bounds, or as bounds of other type parameters declared in the same section.

Type parameters of generic constructor need not be provided explicitly when a generic constructor is invoked. When they are not provided, they are inferred as specified in §15.12.2.7.

8.8.5 Constructor Throws

8.8.6 The Type of a Constructor

8.8.7 Constructor Body

ConstructorBody:
	{ ExplicitConstructorInvocationopt BlockStatementsopt }

If a constructor body does not begin with an explicit constructor invocation and the constructor being declared is not part of the primordial class Object, then the constructor body is implicitly assumed by the compiler to begin with a superclass constructor invocation "super();", an invocation of the constructor of its direct superclass that takes no arguments.

Except for the possibility of explicit constructor invocations, the body of a constructor is like the body of a method (§8.4.7). A return statement (§14.17) may be used in the body of a constructor if it does not include an expression.

In the example:

class Point {
	int x, y;
	Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
}
class ColoredPoint extends Point {
	static final int WHITE = 0, BLACK = 1;
	int color;
	ColoredPoint(int x, int y) {
		this(x, y, WHITE);
	}
	ColoredPoint(int x, int y, int color) {
		super(x, y);
		this.color = color;
	}
}

§12.5 and §15.9 describe the creation and initialization of new class instances.

8.8.7.1 Explicit Constructor Invocations

ExplicitConstructorInvocation:
	NonWildTypeArgumentsopt this ( ArgumentListopt ) ;
	NonWildTypeArgumentsopt super ( ArgumentListopt ) ;
	Primary. NonWildTypeArgumentsopt super ( ArgumentListopt ) ; 

NonWildTypeArguments:
	< ReferenceTypeList >

ReferenceTypeList: 
	ReferenceType
	ReferenceTypeList , ReferenceType

Explicit constructor invocation statements can be divided into two kinds:

• Alternate constructor invocations begin with the keyword this (possibly prefaced with explicit type arguments). They are used to invoke an alternate constructor of the same class.
• Superclass constructor invocations begin with either the keyword super (possibly prefaced with explicit type arguments) or a Primary expression. They are used to invoke a constructor of the direct superclass. Superclass constructor invocations may be further subdivided:
  • Unqualified superclass constructor invocations begin with the keyword super (possibly prefaced with explicit type arguments).
  • Qualified superclass constructor invocations begin with a Primary expression . They allow a subclass constructor to explicitly specify the newly created object's immediately enclosing instance with respect to the direct superclass (§8.1.3). This may be necessary when the superclass is an inner class.

Here is an example of a qualified superclass constructor invocation:

class Outer {
	class Inner{}
}
class ChildOfInner extends Outer.Inner {
	ChildOfInner(){(new Outer()).super();}
}

For example, if the first constructor of ColoredPoint in the example above were changed to:

ColoredPoint(int x, int y) {
	this(x, y, color);
}

An explicit constructor invocation statement can throw an exception type E iff either:

• Some subexpression of the constructor invocation's parameter list can throw E; or
• E is declared in the throws clause of the constructor that is invoked.

If an anonymous class instance creation expression appears within an explicit constructor invocation statement, then the anonymous class may not refer to any of the enclosing instances of the class whose constructor is being invoked.

For example:

class Top {
	int x;
	class Dummy {
		Dummy(Object o) {}
	}
	class Inside extends Dummy {
		Inside() {
			super(new Object() { int r = x; }); // error
		}		
		Inside(final int y) {
			super(new Object() { int r = y; }); // correct
		}
	}
}

• First, if the constructor invocation statement is a superclass constructor invocation, then the immediately enclosing instance of i with respect to S (if any) must be determined. Whether or not i has an immediately enclosing instance with respect to S is determined by the superclass constructor invocation as follows:
  • If S is not an inner class, or if the declaration of S occurs in a static context, no immediately enclosing instance of i with respect to S exists. A compile-time error occurs if the superclass constructor invocation is a qualified superclass constructor invocation.
  • Otherwise:
    • If the superclass constructor invocation is qualified, then the Primary expression p immediately preceding ".super" is evaluated. If the primary expression evaluates to null, a NullPointerException is raised, and the superclass constructor invocation completes abruptly. Otherwise, the result of this evaluation is the immediately enclosing instance of i with respect to S. Let O be the immediately lexically enclosing class of S; it is a compile-time error if the type of p is not O or a subclass of O.
    • Otherwise:
      • If S is a local class (§14.3), then let O be the innermost lexically enclosing class of S. Let n be an integer such that O is the nth lexically enclosing class of C. The immediately enclosing instance of i with respect to S is the nth lexically enclosing instance of this.
      • Otherwise, S is an inner member class (§8.5). It is a compile-time error if S is not a member of a lexically enclosing class, or of a superclass or superinterface thereof. Let O be the innermost lexically enclosing class of which S is a member, and let n be an integer such that O is the nth lexically enclosing class of C. The immediately enclosing instance of i with respect to S is the nth lexically enclosing instance of this.
• Second, the arguments to the constructor are evaluated, left-to-right, as in an ordinary method invocation.
• Next, the constructor is invoked.
• Finally, if the constructor invocation statement is a superclass constructor invocation and the constructor invocation statement completes normally, then all instance variable initializers of C and all instance initializers of C are executed. If an instance initializer or instance variable initializer I textually precedes another instance initializer or instance variable initializer J, then I is executed before J. This action is performed regardless of whether the superclass constructor invocation actually appears as an explicit constructor invocation statement or is provided automatically. An alternate constructor invocation does not perform this additional implicit action.

8.8.8 Constructor Overloading

8.8.9 Default Constructor

• If the class being declared is the primordial class Object, then the default constructor has an empty body.
• Otherwise, the default constructor takes no parameters and simply invokes the superclass constructor with no arguments.

A default constructor has no throws clause.

It follows that if the nullary constructor of the superclass has a throws clause, then a compile-time error will occur.

Thus, the example:

public class Point {
	int x, y;
}

public class Point {
	int x, y;
	public Point() { super(); }
}

The rule that the default constructor of a class has the same access modifier as the class itself is simple and intuitive. Note, however, that this does not imply that the constructor is accessible whenever the class is accessible. Consider

package p1;
public class Outer {
 	protected class Inner{}
}

package p2;
class SonOfOuter extends p1.Outer {
	void foo() {
 		new Inner(); // compile-time access error
	}
}

8.8.10 Preventing Instantiation of a Class

Thus, in the example:

class ClassOnly {
	private ClassOnly() { }
	static String just = "only the lonely";
}

package just;
public class PackageOnly {
	PackageOnly() { }
	String[] justDesserts = { "cheesecake", "ice cream" };
}

8.9 Enums

EnumDeclaration:
	ClassModifiersopt enum Identifier Interfacesopt EnumBody

EnumBody:
	{ EnumConstantsopt ,opt EnumBodyDeclarationsopt }

Discussion

It is a compile-time error to attempt to explicitly instantiate an enum type (§15.9.1). The final clone method in Enum ensures that enum constants can never be cloned, and the special treatment by the serialization mechanism ensures that duplicate instances are never created as a result of deserialization. Reflective instantiation of enum types is prohibited. Together, these four things ensure that no instances of an enum type exist beyond those defined by the enum constants.

Because there is only one instance of each enum constant, it is permissible to use the == operator in place of the equals method when comparing two object references if it is known that at least one of them refers to an enum constant. (The equals method in Enum is a final method that merely invokes super.equals on its argument and returns the result, thus performing an identity comparison.)

EnumConstants:
	EnumConstant
	EnumConstants , EnumConstant

EnumConstant:
	Annotations Identifier Argumentsopt ClassBodyopt

Arguments:
	( ArgumentListopt )

EnumBodyDeclarations:
	; ClassBodyDeclarationsopt
	

An enum constant may be followed by arguments, which are passed to the constructor of the enum type when the constant is created during class initialization as described later in this section. The constructor to be invoked is chosen using the normal overloading rules (§15.12.2). If the arguments are omitted, an empty argument list is assumed. If the enum type has no constructor declarations, a parameterless default constructor is provided (which matches the implicit empty argument list). This default constructor is private.

The optional class body of an enum constant implicitly defines an anonymous class declaration (§15.9.5) that extends the immediately enclosing enum type. The class body is governed by the usual rules of anonymous classes; in particular it cannot contain any constructors.

Discussion

Instance methods declared in these class bodies are may be invoked outside the enclosing enum type only if they override accessible methods in the enclosing enum type.

Enum types (§8.9) must not be declared abstract; doing so will result in a compile-time error. It is a compile-time error for an enum type E to have an abstract method m as a member unless E has one or more enum constants, and all of E's enum constants have class bodies that provide concrete implementations of m. It is a compile-time error for the class body of an enum constant to declare an abstract method.

An enum type is implicitly final unless it contains at least one enum constant that has a class body. In any case, it is a compile-time error to explicitly declare an enum type to be final.

Nested enum types are implicitly static. It is permissable to explicitly declare a nested enum type to be static.

Discussion

This implies that it is impossible to define a local (§14.3) enum, or to define an enum in an inner class (§8.1.3).

Any constructor or member declarations within an enum declaration apply to the enum type exactly as if they had been present in the class body of a normal class declaration unless explicitly stated otherwise.

The direct superclass of an enum type named E is Enum<E>. In addition to the members it inherits from Enum<E>, for each declared enum constant with the name n the enum type has an implicitly declared public static final field named n of type E. These fields are considered to be declared in the same order as the corresponding enum constants, before any static fields explicitly declared in the enum type. Each such field is initialized to the enum constant that corresponds to it. Each such field is also considered to be annotated by the same annotations as the corresponding enum constant. The enum constant is said to be created when the corresponding field is initialized.

It is a compile-time error for an enum to declare a finalizer. An instance of an enum may never be finalized.

In addition, if E is the name of an enum type, then that type has the following implicitly declared static methods:

/**

* Returns an array containing the constants of this enum 
* type, in the order they're declared.  This method may be
* used to iterate over the constants as follows:
*
*    for(E c : E.values())
*        System.out.println(c);
*
* @return an array containing the constants of this enum 
* type, in the order they're declared
*/
public static E[] values();

/**
* Returns the enum constant of this type with the specified
* name.
* The string must match exactly an identifier used to declare
* an enum constant in this type.  (Extraneous whitespace 
* characters are not permitted.)
* 
* @return the enum constant with the specified name
* @throws IllegalArgumentException if this enum type has no
* constant with the specified name
*/
public static E valueOf(String name);

Discussion

It follows that enum type declarations cannot contain fields that conflict with the enum constants, and cannot contain methods that conflict with the automatically generated methods (values() and valueOf(String)) or methods that override the final methods in Enum: (equals(Object), hashCode(), clone(), compareTo(Object), name(), ordinal(), and getDeclaringClass()).

It is a compile-time error to reference a static field of an enum type that is not a compile-time constant (§15.28) from constructors, instance initializer blocks, or instance variable initializer expressions of that type. It is a compile-time error for the constructors, instance initializer blocks, or instance variable initializer expressions of an enum constant e to refer to itself or to an enum constant of the same type that is declared to the right of e.

Discussion

Without this rule, apparently reasonable code would fail at run time due to the initialization circularity inherent in enum types. (A circularity exists in any class with a "self-typed" static field.) Here is an example of the sort of code that would fail:

enum Color {
        RED, GREEN, BLUE;
        static final Map<String,Color> colorMap = 
		new HashMap<String,Color>();
        Color() {
            colorMap.put(toString(), this);
        }
    } 
	

Note that the example can easily be refactored to work properly:

enum Color {
        RED, GREEN, BLUE;
        static final Map<String,Color> colorMap = 
		new HashMap<String,Color>();
        static {
            for (Color c : Color.values())
                colorMap.put(c.toString(), c);
        }
    } 
	

The refactored version is clearly correct, as static initialization occurs top to bottom.

Discussion

Here is program with a nested enum declaration that uses an enhanced for loop to iterate over the constants in the enum:

public class Example1 {
    public enum Season { WINTER, SPRING, SUMMER, FALL }

    public static void main(String[] args) {
        for (Season s : Season.values())
            System.out.println(s);
    }
}

Running this program produces the following output:

WINTER
SPRING
SUMMER
FALL

Here is a program illustrating the use of EnumSet to work with subranges:

import java.util.*;

public class Example2 {
    enum Day { MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY, THURSDAY, FRIDAY, SATURDAY, SUNDAY
}

    public static void main(String[] args) {
        System.out.print("Weekdays: ");
        for (Day d : EnumSet.range(Day.MONDAY, Day.FRIDAY))
            System.out.print(d + " ");
        System.out.println();
    }
}

Running this program produces the following output:

Weekdays: MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY

Here is a slightly more complex enum declaration for an enum type with an explicit instance field and an accessor for this field. Each member has a different value in the field, and the values are passed in via a constructor. In this example, the field represents the value, in cents, of an American coin. Note, however, that their are no restrictions on the type or number of parameters that may be passed to an enum constructor.

public enum Coin {
    PENNY(1), NICKEL(5), DIME(10), QUARTER(25);

    Coin(int value) { this.value = value; }

    private final int value;

    public int value() { return value; }
}

public class CoinTest {
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        for (Coin c : Coin.values())
            System.out.println(c + ":   	"+ c.value() +"¢ 	" + color(c));
    }
    private enum CoinColor { COPPER, NICKEL, SILVER }
    private static CoinColor color(Coin c) {
        switch(c) {
          case PENNY:
            return CoinColor.COPPER;
          case NICKEL:
            return CoinColor.NICKEL;
          case DIME: case QUARTER:
            return CoinColor.SILVER;
          default:
            throw new AssertionError("Unknown coin: " + c);
        }
    }
}

PENNY:          1¢      COPPER
NICKEL:         5¢      NICKEL
DIME:           10¢     SILVER
QUARTER:        25¢     SILVER

In the following example, a playing card class is built atop two simple enum types. Note that each enum type would be as long as the entire example in the absence of the enum facility:

import java.util.*;
public class Card implements Comparable<Card>, java.io.Serializable {
    public enum Rank { DEUCE, THREE, FOUR, FIVE, SIX, SEVEN, EIGHT, NINE, TEN,JACK, 
QUEEN, KING, ACE }
    public enum Suit { CLUBS, DIAMONDS, HEARTS, SPADES }
    private final Rank rank;
    private final Suit suit;
    private Card(Rank rank, Suit suit) {
        if (rank == null || suit == null)
            throw new NullPointerException(rank + ", " + suit);
        this.rank = rank;
        this.suit = suit;
    }
    public Rank rank() { return rank; }
    public Suit suit() { return suit; }
    public String toString() { return rank + " of " + suit; }
    // Primary sort on suit, secondary sort on rank
    public int compareTo(Card c) {
        int suitCompare = suit.compareTo(c.suit);
        return (suitCompare != 0 ? suitCompare : rank.compareTo(c.rank));
    }
    private static final List<Card> prototypeDeck = new ArrayList<Card>(52);
    static {
        for (Suit suit : Suit.values())
            for (Rank rank : Rank.values())
                prototypeDeck.add(new Card(rank, suit));
    }
    // Returns a new deck
    public static List<Card> newDeck() {
        return new ArrayList<Card>(prototypeDeck);
    }
}

import java.util.*;
class Deal {
    public static void main(String args[]) {
		int numHands     = Integer.parseInt(args[0]);
		int cardsPerHand = Integer.parseInt(args[1]);
		List<Card> deck  = Card.newDeck();
		Collections.shuffle(deck);
		for (int i=0; i < numHands; i++)
            System.out.println(dealHand(deck, cardsPerHand));
    	}
    /**
	 * Returns a new ArrayList consisting of the last n elements of 
	 * deck, which are removed from deck.  The returned list is
	 * sorted using the elements' natural ordering.
	*/
    public static <E extends Comparable<E>> ArrayList<E>
            dealHand(List<E> deck, int n) {
        int deckSize = deck.size();
        List<E> handView = deck.subList(deckSize - n, deckSize);
        ArrayList<E> hand = new ArrayList<E>(handView);
        handView.clear();
        Collections.sort(hand);
        return hand;
    }
}

java Deal 4 5
[FOUR of SPADES, NINE of CLUBS, NINE of SPADES, QUEEN of SPADES, KING of SPADES]
[THREE of DIAMONDS, FIVE of HEARTS, SIX of SPADES, SEVEN of DIAMONDS, KING of 
DIAMONDS]
[FOUR of DIAMONDS, FIVE of SPADES, JACK of CLUBS, ACE of DIAMONDS, ACE of 
HEARTS]
[THREE of HEARTS, FIVE of DIAMONDS, TEN of HEARTS, JACK of HEARTS, QUEEN of 
HEARTS]

import java.util.*;
public enum Operation {
    PLUS {
        double eval(double x, double y) { return x + y; }
    },
    MINUS {
        double eval(double x, double y) { return x - y; }
    },
    TIMES {
        double eval(double x, double y) { return x * y; }
    },
    DIVIDED_BY {
        double eval(double x, double y) { return x / y; }
    };
    // Perform the arithmetic operation represented by this constant
   // abstract double eval(double x, double y);
    public static void main(String args[]) {
        double x = Double.parseDouble(args[0]);
        double y = Double.parseDouble(args[1]);

        for (Operation op : Operation.values())
            System.out.println(x + " " + op + " " + y + " = " + op.eval(x, y));
    }
}

java Operation 2.0 4.0
2.0 PLUS 4.0 = 6.0
2.0 MINUS 4.0 = -2.0
2.0 TIMES 4.0 = 8.0
2.0 DIVIDED_BY 4.0 = 0.5

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Java Language Specification Third Edition

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